Playing with risk? Participant perceptions of risk and management implications in adventure tourism
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Flow experience has an impact on tourists' post-tour behaviors.
“Cater [8] pointed out that people enjoy the flow experiences generated during adventure activities and want to stay involved in the activity for a long time to experience the wonderful feeling again, so the flow experience will undoubtedly have an impact on tourists' post-tour behaviors.”
From Restorative environmental perception’s influence on post-tour behavior of desert off-road self-driving tourists: the mediating role of flow experience (2023) · cites this paper as [8]
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“There are ≥11 analyses of whitewater rafting and kayaking (Arnould & Price, 1993; Arnould et al., 1999; CarnicelliFilho et al., 2010; Cater, 2006; Cater & Cloke, 2007; Fluker & Turner, 2000; Holyfield, 1999; Holyfield & Fine, 1997; Jones, Hollenhorst, Perna, & Selin, 2000; McGillivray & Frew, 2007;…”
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“, 2016) and other adventurous activities (Cater, 2006).”
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“However, this risk paradigm was deemed to be inadequate to capture the adventure tourism experience (Cater, 2006; Kane, 2004).”
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“2003; Cater 2013). In Varley’s continuum, the emphasis is on the inner journey involved in adventurous activities. This point of view has also been highlighted in the introduction on the edited book ‘Adventure Tourism’, in which Varley and Taylor (2013) warn against disciplinary fragmentation and too narrow definition…”
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“While the need for safety are of primary importance for tourists who travel to rest and relax (Reisinger and Mavondo, 2005), some tourists purposely seek for an optimal level of risk that forms the excitement part of travel (Cater, 2006; Dickson and Dolnicar, 2004; Quintal et al., 2010).”
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“strong parallels to adventure tourism (Buckley, 2012; Cater, 2006) and outdoor adventure education (Brown, 2009; McKenzie, 2000), respectively.”
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“There is also a growing body of research which explores the importance of risk, fear and thrills in the context of adventure tourism (e.g. Carnicello-Filho, Schwartz, & Tahara, 2010; Cater, 2006).”
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The influence of the environment on adventure tourism: from motivations to experiences
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“Most of this research revolves around the influence of risk and/or thrill on these motivations (e.g. Buckley, 2012; Carnicelli-Filho et al., 2010; Cater, 2006).”
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“Traditional explanations of adventure sport, including adventure sport tourism, have framed participation motives in terms of risk or thrill-seeking, sensationseeking dispositions (e.g. Cater, 2006; Lyng, 2005; Zuckerman, 2007), or ‘rush’ experiences (Buckley, 2012).”
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“(iii) When undertaking research on adventure tourism in Queenstown, New Zealand, performative activities such as bungee jumping seemed to evade easy description and representation (Cater, 2006; Cater & Cloke, 2007; Cloke & Perkins, 1998).”
BackgroundFlow, satisfaction and storytelling: a causal relationship? Evidence from scuba diving in Turkey
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“, 2003); subsequently much previous work has attempted to evaluate qualitative dimensions of flow (Cater, 2006; 2008).”
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Selling adventure tourism: a distribution channels perspective
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“Cater (2006) found that people engaging in adventure tourism activities are motivated by the experience of fear and excitement (perceived risk) rather than by actual risk.”
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“In psychological models, Cater (2006) claims that adventure tourists seek fear and thrills with minimal exposure to risk.”
BackgroundTheorising visitor learning in ecotourism
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“…tourism which emphasises high risk ‘fear and thrills’ outdoor recreational activities such as zip lining, snowboarding, bungee jumping, rappelling, kite surfing, helicopter skiing and so on (Buckley, 2012; Cater, 2006; Weber, 2001), for which natural environments simply provide an amenable setting.”
BackgroundThe concept of risk in nature-based tourism and recreation – a systematic literature review
Gstaettner, A. M., Lee, D., & Rodger, K. (2016) · Current Issues in Tourism · doi:10.1080/13683500.2016.1244174 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“tial to lose something of value (Cater, 2006; King & Beeton, 2006) and was depicted as the”
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‘Extending the Dream Machine’: Understanding people's participation in mountain biking
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“A number of adventure recreation studies have used similar qualitative research methods, utilising elements of induction without specifically labelling it as such (e.g., Cater, 2006; Celsi et al., 1993; Kane & Tucker, 2004).”
BackgroundMotivation and involvement in adventure tourism activities: a Chinese tourists' perspective
Jin, X., Xiang, Y., Weber, K., & Liu, Y. (2019) · Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research · doi:10.1080/10941665.2019.1666152 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“Also, participants perceive risks differently from the operators and the responsibility for risk management lies increasingly with the operators (Cater, 2006).”
BackgroundHow personality and risk-taking attitude affect the behavior of adventure recreationists
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“Adventure activities involve uncertain outcomes, risk taking, challenge, novelty, excitement, escapism, and exploration (Cater, 2006; Pomfret, 2012; Walle, 1997).”
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Varley, P. J. (2011) · Leisure Studies · doi:10.1080/02614361003749801 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“(McNamee, 2007, pp. 6–8) In its contemporary form, for a price, the risk can be almost entirely managed-out of adventurous leisure pursuits by paid professionals who choreograph the experiences (Beedie, 2003; Cater, 2006).”
BackgroundAdventure and ecotourism safety in Queensland: Operator experiences and practice
Bentley, T. A., Cater, C., & Page, S. J. (2009) · Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2009.03.006 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Risk factors identified by operators related most frequently to adverse and changeable weather conditions and client skills and behavior, and a notable proportion of operators reported that they did not apply important safety management practices.”
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‘Scary … but I like it!’ Young tourists' perceptions of fear on holiday
Mura, P. (2010) · Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change · doi:10.1080/14766825.2010.482209 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“Within the context of adventure tourism, Cater (2006) argues that participants engaging in adventure tourism deliberately seek fear and thrill.”
BackgroundPersonal emotional journeys associated with adventure activities on packaged mountaineering holidays
Pomfret, G. (2012) · Tourism Management Perspectives · doi:10.1016/j.tmp.2012.08.003 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Hardiman, N., & Burgin, S. (2011) · Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2011.01.002 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“As a segment of the overall tourism and recreation market, adventure recreation has grown rapidly in recent years, driven by increased commercialisation (Buckley, 2007), use of adventure imagery in retail advertising (Buckley, 2003), and an increasing desire to experience thrills and risks, especially in leisure pursu…”
BackgroundMicroclimate tourism and microclimate tourism security and safety in China
Yang, X., Dong, L., & Li, C. (2019) · Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2018.12.012 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Delineating acceptable risk in the space tourism industry
Spector, S. (2020) · Tourism Recreation Research · doi:10.1080/02508281.2020.1747798 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
THE EMOTIONAL LIFE OF ADVENTURE GUIDES
Carnicelli, S. (2013) · Annals of Tourism Research · doi:10.1016/j.annals.2013.05.003 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Mu, Y., & Nepal, S. K. (2015) · Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research · doi:10.1080/10941665.2015.1062787 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“This grouping was necessary to understand the context of participants’ perspectives, as previous studies demonstrated that perceptions of risk can be influenced by participants’ previous experiences (Cater, 2006; Martin & Priest, 1986; Pomfret, 2006).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialBarriers to offering special interest tour products to the Chinese outbound group market
Jin, X., & Sparks, B. (2016) · Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2016.08.007 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“A gradually acquired lifetime skill is no longer essential for participation in some adventure (outdoor recreational) activities, as they have become commercialised, purchasable short-term holiday experiences (Buckley, 2007; Cater, 2006).”
BackgroundThe softening of adventure tourism
Rantala, O., Hallikainen, V., Ilola, H., et al. (2018) · Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism · doi:10.1080/15022250.2018.1522725 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“The factor analysis seems to support the findings of previous studies, suggesting that tourists do not look for risk, but for thrilling ways of experiencing pleasure and fun and learning about themselves (Cater, 2006).”
BackgroundResultPhoenix tourism within dark tourism
Miller, D. S., Gonzalez, C., & Hutter, M. (2017) · Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes · doi:10.1108/whatt-08-2016-0040 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Adventure Tourism Research: A Guide to the Literature
Buckley, R. (2006) · Tourism Recreation Research · doi:10.1080/02508281.2006.11081265 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“Adventure tourists want to be thrilled and perhaps frightened but not actually endangered (Cater 2005).”
InfluentialMountain biking: downhill for the environment or chance to up a gear?
Hardiman, N., & Burgin, S. (2013) · International Journal of Environmental Studies · doi:10.1080/00207233.2013.848531 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“There has been a little research into the motivation and perception of participants in these more extreme derivatives compared to the more mainstream versions, but an important element of alternatives appears to be a desire to experience thrills by overcoming (perceived) risks of personal danger [3,4].”
BackgroundSchlegelmilch, F., & Ollenburg, C. (2013) · Tourism Review · doi:10.1108/tr-03-2013-0010 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“Participants play with their fears and the unknown when entering an adventure activity, which ultimately gives them joy, fun or excitement (Cater, 2006).”
BackgroundInfluentialGiddy, J. K., & Webb, N. L. (2015) · South African Geographical Journal · doi:10.1080/03736245.2015.1028990 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“…2001; Buckley, 2004; Fennell, 2008), while the third, considers the motivations of adventure tourists by primarily focusing on the broad notion of ‘risk/thrill’ associated with such participation (Carnicelli-Filho, Schwartz, & Tahara, 2010; Cater, 2006; Ewert & Hollenhorst, 1989; Robinson, 1992).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialEnvironmental attitudes and adventure tourism motivations
Giddy, J. K., & Webb, N. L. (2017) · GeoJournal · doi:10.1007/s10708-017-9768-9 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Zhang, H., Cho, T., & Wang, H. (2019) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su12010007 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“For example, Cater [37] found that the most successful adventure tourism operators in Queenstown, New Zealand, were those that had reduced their actual risk levels.”
BackgroundResultA spatial accessibility assessment of urban tourist attractions emergency response in Shanghai
Shi, Y., Yao, Q., Wen, J., et al. (2022) · International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction · doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2022.102919 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Family adventure tourism motives and decision-making: A case of whitewater rafting
Jamal, S. A., Aminudin, N., & Kausar, D. R. (2018) · Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism · doi:10.1016/j.jort.2018.11.005 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Tourism research on adventure tourism – Current themes and developments
Sand, M., & Groß, S. (2019) · Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism · doi:10.1016/j.jort.2019.100261 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Kent, K., Sinclair, A. J., & Diduck, A. P. (2011) · International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology · doi:10.1080/13504509.2011.595544 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“It is important for all of the stakeholders in the area to recognise that successful adventure tourism operations are those that reduce risk levels (Cater 2006), and that this requires an understanding of all the risk factors at play (Bentley et al. 2000).”
BackgroundInfluentialBui, N. A., & Kiatkawsin, K. (2020) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su12051747 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“Caving, mountain/ice/rock climbing, trekking are examples of the three most popular hardy tourism activities [14,15].”
BackgroundBrea, J. A. F., Villamarín, P. D. C., & Vila, N. A. (2020) · Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism · doi:10.1016/j.jort.2020.100294 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Can equestrian tourism be a solution for sustainable tourism development in France?
Pickel-Chevalier, S. (2015) · Loisir et Société / Society and Leisure · doi:10.1080/07053436.2015.1007580 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“This occurs either by seeking to minimize risk-taking, even in adventure tourism (C. I. Cater, 2006; Weber, 2001), by organizing an excursion or a trip via a registered agency – riding centers, specialist tour operators – or by searching for reliable routes and accommodation.”
BackgroundTapar, A. V., Dhaigude, A. S., & Jawed, M. S. (2017) · Tourism Recreation Research · doi:10.1080/02508281.2017.1303564 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“…adventure tourism and sports, product pricing, environment, and risk to name a few (see e.g. Beedie & Hudson, 2003; Bentley & Page, 2008; Buckley, 2006, 2011, 2012; Bonnefoy-Claudet & Ghantous, 2013; Cater, 2006; Ewert & Hollenhorst, 1994; Ewert & Sibthorp, 2014; Xie & Schneider, 2004 and so on).”
BackgroundIdealizing adventure tourism experiences: tourists’ self-assessment and expectations
Ponte, J., do Couto, G. M. M., Sousa, Á., et al. (2021) · Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism · doi:10.1016/j.jort.2021.100379 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Pleasure Through Pain: An Empirical Examination of Benign Masochism in Tourism
Nørfelt, A., Köck, F., Karpen, I. O., & Josiassen, A. (2022) · Journal of Travel Research · doi:10.1177/00472875211067550 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Specifically, two important requirements for enjoying painful activities were mentioned that also align with prior literature (e.g., Augustin and Apter 2016; Cater 2006; Rozin et al. 2013): perceived safety and a balanced level of painful stimuli.”
BackgroundKummitha, H. R., Kolloju, N., Jancsik, A., et al. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su131911031 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Those key determining factors are the financial benefits [38,39], the supplying of infrastructure and knowledge [2], environmental sustainability [40], and community involvement [13].”
BackgroundA call for reducing tourism risk to environmental hazards in the Himalaya
Ziegler, A. D., Wasson, R. J., Sundriyal, Y., Srivastava, P., Sasges, G., Ramchunder, S. J., Ong, C. E., Nepal, S. K., McAdoo, B. G., Gillen, J., et al. (2021) · Environmental Hazards · doi:10.1080/17477891.2021.1984196 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Bird, D. K., & Gísladóttir, G. (2020) · International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction · doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2020.101896 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Spennemann, D. H. R., & Whitsed, R. (2021) · Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism · doi:10.1016/j.jort.2021.100445 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“In outdoor recreation, the perception of risk, as well as the actual risk of an activity, needs to be matched with technical competence in order to achieve a peak outcome (Cater, 2006; Priest, 1990).”
BackgroundRisk Perception of Mega-events
Boo, S., & Gu, H. (2010) · Journal of Sport & Tourism · doi:10.1080/14775085.2010.498257 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“Regarding adventure tourism, Cater (2006) implied that trust is an important factor for operators seeking to get participants to become involved in adventurous activity, and that the information provided by operators should be trustworthy in order to result in the perception of low risk by…”
BackgroundInfluentialChen, S. X., Mak, B. L. M., & Kankhuni, Z. (2020) · Tourism Management Perspectives · doi:10.1016/j.tmp.2020.100679 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
- Authors
- Cater, C. I.
- Affiliations
- Griffith University (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Cater, Carl I.
- ORCID
- Cater, Carl I.
- Venue
- Tourism Management
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2006-04
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 317-325
- ISSN
- 0261-5177 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2058649649
- Semantic Scholar
- 0c70c9b93978b50b9a690b18ef2612cb77e86b71
- Cited by
- 411
- References
- 37
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 35 · 2020: 41 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 29 · 2016: 33 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 14 · 2012: 23
- FWCI
- 4.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Tourism Management (publishedVersion)
- Griffith Research Online (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Adventure Sports and Sensation Seeking
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Diverse Aspects of Tourism Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Recreation, Leisure, Wilderness Management
- Keywords
- adventure tourism, risk perception, sensation seeking, fear, risk management, corporate sustainability, Queenstown, participant motivation
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