Anti-vaccine activists, Web 2.0, and the postmodern paradigm - An overview of tactics and tropes used online by the anti-vaccination movement
Abstract
Websites opposing vaccination are prevalent on the Internet. Web 2.0, defined by interaction and user-generated content, has become ubiquitous. Furthermore, a new postmodern paradigm of healthcare has emerged, where power has shifted from doctors to patients, the legitimacy of science is questioned, and expertise is redefined. Together this has created an environment where anti-vaccine activists are able to effectively spread their messages. Evidence shows that individuals turn to the Internet for vaccination advice, and suggests such sources can impact vaccination decisions - therefore it is likely that anti-vaccine websites can influence whether people vaccinate themselves or their children. This overview examines the types of rhetoric individuals may encounter online in order to better understand why the anti-vaccination movement can be convincing, despite lacking scientific support for their claims. Tactics and tropes commonly used to argue against vaccination are described. This includes actions such as skewing science, shifting hypotheses, censoring dissent, and attacking critics; also discussed are frequently made claims such as not being "anti-vaccine" but "pro-safe vaccines", that vaccines are toxic or unnatural, and more. Recognizing disingenuous claims made by the anti-vaccination movement is essential in order to critically evaluate the information and misinformation encountered online.
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Some of the top "hits" for vaccine-related search terms are websites that propagate anti-vaccine conspiracy theories.
“Parents who go to the Internet will find that some of the top “hits” for vaccine-related search terms are websites that propagate anti-vaccine conspiracy theories [14], [15].”
From The Effects of Anti-Vaccine Conspiracy Theories on Vaccination Intentions (2014) · cites this paper as [14]
Attempts at intervention that cite claims by scientists and medical professionals may fail on people who are sympathetic to a variety of conspiracy claims.
“Such attempts at intervention may therefore fail on people who are sympathetic to a variety of conspiracy claims [14], [15].”
From The Effects of Anti-Vaccine Conspiracy Theories on Vaccination Intentions (2014) · cites this paper as [14]
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Smith, N., & Graham, T. (2019) · Information, Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/1369118x.2017.1418406 · Cited by 351 · see citing works
“However, the present literature on anti-vaccination is sporadic, limited (Kata, 2010; 2012), and is not often linked with broader sociological understanding of e-health practices.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialThe anti-vaccination infodemic on social media: A behavioral analysis
Germani, F., & Biller-Andorno, N. (2021) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0247642 · Cited by 316 · see citing works
RetractedNews media literacy and conspiracy theory endorsement
Craft, S., Ashley, S., & Maksl, A. (2017) · Communication and the Public · doi:10.1177/2057047317725539 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
“However, the prevalence of misinformation online, such as the conspiracy theory regarding a link between vaccines and autism, has the negative consequence of leading some people to avoid childhood vaccinations despite the widespread and well-documented benefits provided by vaccinations (Kata, 2012).”
BackgroundBrowne, M., Thomson, P., Rockloff, M., & Pennycook, G. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0132562 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
“Some components of a belief system associated with CAM; including a post-modern worldview, a holistic orientation to health and spirituality, and valuing personal growth and self-expression [27]; have also been associated with negative attitudes towards vaccination [3,7].”
BackgroundTrust in Scientists on Climate Change and Vaccines
Hamilton, L. C., Hartter, J., & Saito, K. (2015) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/2158244015602752 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
Online misinformation and vaccine hesitancy
Garett, R., & Young, S. D. (2021) · Translational Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1093/tbm/ibab128 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Investigating Italian parents' vaccine hesitancy: A cross-sectional survey
Napolitano, F., D'Alessandro, A., & Angelillo, I. F. (2018) · Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics · doi:10.1080/21645515.2018.1463943 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
It’s not all about autism: The emerging landscape of anti-vaccination sentiment on Facebook
Hoffman, B. L., Felter, E. M., Chu, K., Shensa, A. S., Hermann, C., Wolynn, T. H., Williams, D., & Primack, B. A. (2019) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.03.003 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy in Africa: a scoping review
Ackah, B., Woo, M., Stallwood, L., Fazal, Z. A., Okpani, A. I., Ukah, U. V., & Adu, P. (2022) · Global Health Research and Policy · doi:10.1186/s41256-022-00255-1 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Jones, A. M., Omer, S. B., Bednarczyk, R. A., Halsey, N. A., Moulton, L. H., & Salmon, D. A. (2012) · Advances in Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1155/2012/932741 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
“Much of the Internet-based vaccine information that reaches parents contains antivaccine content [17–21], and this is often couched in scientific-sounding language to lend an air of legitimacy to the antivaccine messaging [21].”
BackgroundVaccine Rejection and Hesitancy: A Review and Call to Action
Smith, T. C. (2017) · Open Forum Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/ofid/ofx146 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
“However, scientists do not always know the rhetorical tricks and tactics [10] that vaccine rejectors and their leaders (see Table 2) frequently use; engaging them can be a mistake without understanding not only the science, but also the objections and references that vaccine rejectors may use.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialCompton, J., van der Linden, S., Cook, J., & Basol, M. (2021) · Social & Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12602 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Boosting Health Campaign Reach and Engagement Through Use of Social Media Influencers and Memes
Kostygina, G., Tran, H., Binns, S., Szczypka, G., Emery, S., Vallone, D., & Hair, E. C. (2020) · Social Media + Society · doi:10.1177/2056305120912475 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
“…of broadcast and print media celebrity campaigns, celebrities can have a tremendous influence on individuals’ knowledge, attitudes, and decision-making behaviors, including those that affect health (Hoffman & Tan, 2013, 2015; Kata, 2012; Lee, 2013; Lum et al., 2008; Tanne, 2000; Viale, 2014).”
BackgroundOn pins and needles: How vaccines are portrayed on Pinterest
Guidry, J. P. D., Carlyle, K. E., Messner, M., & Jin, Y. (2015) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2015.08.064 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
Parent perspectives on childhood vaccination: How to deal with vaccine hesitancy and refusal?
Bianco, A., Mascaro, V., Zucco, R., & Pavía, M. (2019) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2018.12.062 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
Kwok, S. W. H., Vadde, S. K., & Wang, G. (2021) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/26953 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
“Although antivaxxers proposed different rationales to oppose vaccination [41], the fact is that only vaccination has a history of successfully eradicating viral diseases such as smallpox [42].”
BackgroundAddressing the anti-vaccination movement and the role of HCWs
Tafuri, S., Gallone, M. S., Cappelli, M. G., Martinelli, D., Prato, R., & Germinario, C. A. (2013) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.11.006 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Addressing vaccine hesitancy: Clinical guidance for primary care physicians working with parents.
Shen, S. C., & Dubey, V. (2019) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Anderson, A. A., & Huntington, H. (2017) · Science Communication · doi:10.1177/1075547017735113 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
“Other examples point to the possibility of social media to foster skeptical viewpoints on other scientific topics, such as vaccines (e.g., Kata, 2012).”
BackgroundSpreading (Dis)Trust: Covid-19 Misinformation and Government Intervention in Italy
Lovari, A. (2020) · Media and Communication · doi:10.17645/mac.v8i2.3219 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Mistrust and misinformation: A two-component, socio-epistemic model of belief in conspiracy theories
Pierre, J. M. (2020) · Journal of Social and Political Psychology · doi:10.5964/jspp.v8i2.1362 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Lavazza, A., & Farina, M. (2020) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2020.00356 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
Dinga, J. N., Sinda, L. K., & Titanji, V. P. K. (2021) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines9020175 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Epistemic beliefs’ role in promoting misperceptions and conspiracist ideation
Garrett, R. K., & Weeks, B. E. (2017) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0184733 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
What are the factors that contribute to parental vaccine-hesitancy and what can we do about it?
Williams, S. E. (2014) · Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics · doi:10.4161/hv.28596 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
“VHPs may have acquired misinformation about the risks and benefits of childhood vaccines through social networks(15) or the internet.(14,16) Yet, health care providers are consistently cited as the most important resource for vaccine information by VHPs, and provider recommendation for vaccination is one of the most i…”
BackgroundNudging toward vaccination: a systematic review
Reñosa, M. D. C., Landicho, J., Wachinger, J., Dalglish, S. L., Bärnighausen, K., Bärnighausen, T., & McMahon, S. A. (2021) · BMJ Global Health · doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2021-006237 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Quantifying the rise of vaccine opposition on Twitter during the COVID-19 pandemic
Bonnevie, E., Gallegos-Jeffrey, A., Goldbarg, J., Byrd, B., & Smyser, J. (2020) · Journal of Communications In Healthcare · doi:10.1080/17538068.2020.1858222 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
“estimated that half of all parents of small children in the UK have been exposed to vaccine opposition [25,53].”
BackgroundDubé, È., Gagnon, D., Ouakki, M., Bettinger, J. A., Guay, M., Halperin, S. A., Wilson, K. R., Graham, J., Witteman, H. O., MacDonald, S. E., et al. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0156118 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Why conspiracy theories matter: A social psychological analysis
Douglas, K. M., & Sutton, R. M. (2018) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463283.2018.1537428 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
“about vaccine efficacy and safety are common (Kata, 2012).”
BackgroundSentiment, Contents, and Retweets: A Study of Two Vaccine-Related Twitter Datasets
Blankenship, E. B., Goff, M. E., Yin, J., Tse, Z. T. H., Fu, K., Liang, H., Saroha, N., & Fung, I. C. (2018) · The Permanente Journal · doi:10.7812/tpp/17-138 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Steffens, M., Dunn, A. G., Wiley, K. E., & Leask, J. (2019) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-019-7659-3 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Online Social Endorsement and Covid-19 Vaccine Hesitancy in the United Kingdom
Chadwick, A., Kaiser, J., Vaccari, C., Freeman, D., Lambe, S., Loe, B. S., Vanderslott, S., Lewandowsky, S., Conroy, M., Ross, A. R. N., et al. (2021) · Social Media + Society · doi:10.1177/20563051211008817 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
“Despite the growth of “anti-vax” campaigns (Kata, 2012; Wellcome Trust, 2019), recent concerns about vaccine hesitancy mainly focused on childhood immunization (Dubé et al., 2013).”
BackgroundTwitter as a source of vaccination information: Content drivers and what they are saying
Love, B., Himelboim, I., Holton, A. E., & Stewart, K. (2013) · American Journal of Infection Control · doi:10.1016/j.ajic.2012.10.016 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Stahl, J. ‐., Cohen, R., Denis, F., Gaudelus, J., Martinot, A., Lery, T., & Lepetit, H. (2016) · Médecine et Maladies Infectieuses · doi:10.1016/j.medmal.2016.02.002 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Zika vaccine misconceptions: A social media analysis
Dredze, M. H., Broniatowski, D. A., & Hilyard, K. M. (2016) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2016.05.008 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Moran, M. B., Lucas, M. A., Everhart, K., Morgan, A. M., & Prickett, E. (2016) · Journal of Communications In Healthcare · doi:10.1080/17538068.2016.1235531 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Ward, P., Attwell, K., Meyer, S. B., Rokkas, P., & Leask, J. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0185955 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Luo, C., Chen, A., Cui, B., & Liao, W. (2021) · Telematics and Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.tele.2021.101712 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
“The anti-vaccine narrative on Twitter has been repeatedly accentuated in former studies (Kang et al., 2017; Kata, 2012; Murphy et al., 2021; Radzikowski et al., 2016).”
A survey instrument for measuring vaccine acceptance
Sarathchandra, D., Navin, M. C., Largent, M. A., & McCright, A. M. (2018) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2018.01.006 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
“Further, President Trump provides powerful platforms for anti-vaccination activists (Garrett, 2017) to promote their views (Kata, 2012), and he personally repeats these views when claiming there is a link between vaccines and autism (Kopplin, 2016).”
BackgroundRisk, Trust, and Flawed Assumptions: Vaccine Hesitancy During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Ebrahimi, O. V., Johnson, M. S., Ebling, S., Amundsen, O. M., Halsøy, Ø., Hoffart, A., Skjerdingstad, N., & Johnson, S. U. (2021) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2021.700213 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Selfish-rational non-vaccination: Experimental evidence from an interactive vaccination game
BOHM, R. M., Betsch, C., & Korn, L. (2015) · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2015.11.008 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
The web and public confidence in MMR vaccination in Italy
Aquino, F., Donzelli, G., Franco, E., Privitera, G. P., Lopalco, P. L., & Carducci, A. (2017) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2017.07.029 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Lutkenhaus, R., Jansz, J., & Bouman, M. P. A. (2019) · Digital Health · doi:10.1177/2055207618821521 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
“61,62 Mapping the discourse on vaccination in and between communities produced results that can be used to define and tailor health communications to the perceptions of the different online communities.”
BackgroundArif, N., Al-Jefri, M. M., Bizzi, I. H., Perano, G. B., Goldman, M., Haq, I., Chua, K. L., Mengozzi, M., Neunez, M., Smith, H. E., et al. (2018) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2018.01215 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
“Studies have previously explored this area of the Internet and have analyzed their features in English and French (6, 8).”
Sell, T. K., Hosangadi, D., & Trotochaud, M. (2020) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-020-08697-3 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
“The role that misinformation has played fueling vaccine hesitancy has been widely studied [19] [20] [21] , and outbreaks of vaccine preventable diseases have demonstrated the impacts of misinformation [22] .”
BackgroundReich, J. A. (2018) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.10.027 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
“…or online—are often self-reinforcing as members share information to facilitate action (Coleman, 1988), like encouraging others to question vaccine safety and necessity (Kata, 2012; Sobo et al., 2016) or challenge legal or social requirements to vaccinate (Reich, 2018; Tangherlini et al., 2016).”
BackgroundInfluentialGrant, L., Hausman, B. L., Cashion, M., Lucchesi, N., Patel, K., & Roberts, J. (2015) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.4153 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Peter, C., & Koch, T. (2016) · Science Communication · doi:10.1177/1075547015613523 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Utilizing health information technology to improve vaccine communication and coverage
Stockwell, M. S., & Fiks, A. G. (2013) · Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics · doi:10.4161/hv.25031 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
“123 Health care providers need to be attuned to the content of vaccine-related websites since patients and families may view these sites and have questions, 121-124 especially given the common lack of verification of posted information.”
BackgroundScience by social media: Attitudes towards climate change are mediated by perceived social consensus
Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J., Fay, N., & Gignac, G. E. (2019) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-019-00948-y · Cited by 125 · see citing works
“Those sites that permit generation of user content are collectively also known as Web 2.0 (Kata, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialMedical disinformation and the unviable nature of COVID-19 conspiracy theories
Grimes, D. R. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0245900 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Jones-Jang, S. M., McKeever, B. W., Mckeever, R. J., & Kim, J. K. (2017) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2017.1384433 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
“Research has also found that vaccination-hesitant parents tend to rely on online information more so than parents who have their children vaccinated (Kata, 2012).”
BackgroundDomnich, A., Cambiaggi, M., Vasco, A., Maraniello, L., Ansaldi, F., Baldo, V., Bonanni, P., Calabrò, G. E., Costantino, C., de Waure, C., et al. (2020) · Vaccines · doi:10.3390/vaccines8040711 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Dasilva, J. P., Ayerdi, K. M., & Galdospín, T. M. (2020) · El Profesional de la Informacion · doi:10.3145/epi.2020.may.08 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
“Sin embargo, a pesar de las importantes posibilidades para la difusión de información objetiva, los medios sociales se utilizan frecuentemente para difundir información errónea, expandir falsas informaciones o datos sin verificar sobre contenidos de salud (Kata, 2012).”
BackgroundDredze, M., Broniatowski, D. A., Smith, M. C., & Hilyard, K. M. (2015) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2015.10.002 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Correcting misinformation by health organizations during measles outbreaks: A controlled experiment
Gesser‐Edelsburg, A., Diamant, A., Hijazi, R., & Mesch, G. S. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0209505 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Accepters, fence sitters, or rejecters: Moral profiles of vaccination attitudes.
Rossen, I., Hurlstone, M. J., Dunlop, P., & Lawrence, C. (2019) · Social Science & Medicine (1967) · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.01.038 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Ma, T. (., & Atkin, D. J. (2016) · Telematics and Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.tele.2016.09.009 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
“It appears that unreliable health information (e.g., anti-vaccine or crash diet information) can be presented (Kata, 2012) and shared (Villiard and Moreno, 2012) by end-users.”
BackgroundExploring the antecedents and consequences of epistemic emotions
Chevrier, M., Muis, K. R., Trevors, G., Pekrun, R. H., & Sinatra, G. M. (2019) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2019.05.006 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Geographic and demographic correlates of autism-related anti-vaccine beliefs on Twitter, 2009-15
Tomeny, T. S., Vargo, C. J., & El‐Toukhy, S. (2017) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.08.041 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
“…2004; “Joint statement of the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) and the United States Public Health Service (USPHS),” 1999; Stratton et al., 2012; Taylor et al., 2014), this belief remains (Bazzano et al., 2012; Fischbach et al., 2016) and is promulgated on online forums (Kata, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialWard, P. (2017) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2017.00022 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
A Call for a Public Health Agenda for Social Media Research
Pagoto, S., Waring, M. E., & Xu, R. (2019) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/16661 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
“Social media is a burgeoning area of study in the field of public health; however, much research covered in the popular media has focused on its harms [6-9].”
Chen, L., Zhang, Y., Young, R., Wu, X., & Zhu, G. (2020) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2020.1751384 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
“The internet is a major source of vaccine-related misinformation, including conspiracy theories (Kata, 2010, 2012; Lewandowsky et al., 2012; Ward et al., 2016).”
BackgroundVaccine hesitancy: More than a movement
Callender, D. M. (2016) · Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics · doi:10.1080/21645515.2016.1178434 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
“The data now shows that 16% of people look for vaccine information online and 70% use what they found to guide their medical care.(23) Optionally forces are successful because vaccine-hesitancy website have a common internal operating picture.”
BackgroundOn the Viability of Conspiratorial Beliefs
Grimes, D. R. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0147905 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Sonawane, K., Lin, Y.-Y., Damgacioglu, H., Zhu, Y., Fernández, M. E., Montealegre, J. R., Cazaban, C. G., Li, R., Lairson, D. R., Lin, Y. C., et al. (2021) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.24502 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Beliefs towards vaccination and trust in the scientific community in Italy
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Public Perceptions of the Ethics of In-vitro Meat: Determining an Appropriate Course of Action
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Vaccine Hesitancy and Online Information: The Influence of Digital Networks
Getman, R., Helmi, M. F., Roberts, H., Yansane, A., Cutler, D., & Seymour, B. A. (2017) · Health Education & Behavior · doi:10.1177/1090198117739673 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
“And, in fact, several researchers attribute the growth of the vaccine-hesitant community to the breakdown of this hierarchical mode of authority online (Kata, 2012; Witteman & Zikmund-Fisher, 2012).”
BackgroundMistrust of the medical profession and higher disgust sensitivity predict parental vaccine hesitancy
Reuben, R. B., Aitken, D., Freedman, J. L., & Einstein, G. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0237755 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Exploring the relations between epistemic beliefs, emotions, and learning from texts
Trevors, G., Muis, K. R., Pekrun, R. H., Sinatra, G. M., & Muijselaar, M. M. L. (2016) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2016.10.001 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
What arguments on vaccinations run through YouTube videos in Italy? A content analysis
Covolo, L., Ceretti, E., Passeri, C., Boletti, M., & Gelatti, U. (2017) · Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics · doi:10.1080/21645515.2017.1306159 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Delany‐Moretlwe, S., Kelley, K., James, S., Scorgie, F., Subedar, H., Dlamini, N., Pillay, Y., Naidoo, N., Chikandiwa, A. T., & Rees, H. (2018) · Global Health Science and Practice · doi:10.9745/ghsp-d-18-00090 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“Furthermore, the user-generated content—a key feature of social media—encourages lay persons to engage with medical knowledge, selecting or rejecting information based on their personal “truths” or those of other online users.(45) This type of content can effectively mobilize those who already have low levels of trust…”
Background“Down the Rabbit Hole” of Vaccine Misinformation on YouTube: Network Exposure Study
Tang, L., Fujimoto, K., Amith, M. “., Cunningham, R. M., Costantini, R. A., York, F. N., Xiong, G. Y., Boom, J. A., & Tao, C. (2020) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/23262 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“This contradicts prior research that reported that antivaccine videos appear in the top search hits [23].”
- Authors
- Kata, A.
- Affiliations
- McMaster University (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Kata, Anna
- ORCID
- Kata, Anna
- Venue
- Vaccine
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2012-05
- Volume
- 30
- Issue
- 25
- Pages
- 3778-3789
- ISSN
- 0264-410X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2062321610
- Cited by
- 1,094
- References
- 83
- Citations by year
- 2026: 36 · 2025: 65 · 2024: 77 · 2023: 111 · 2022: 124 · 2021: 151 · 2020: 158 · 2019: 81 · 2018: 73 · 2017: 58 · 2016: 60 · 2015: 47 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 9
- FWCI
- 56.58
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Vaccine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
- Social Sciences › Health › Vaccine Coverage and Hesitancy
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Health Literacy and Information Accessibility
- Keywords
- anti-vaccine movement, anti-vaccine activism, Web 2.0, misinformation, vaccine hesitancy, user-generated content, science communication, online health information
- MeSH terms
- Communication, Decision Making, Humans, Health Knowledge, Attitudes, Practice, Patient Acceptance of Health Care, Vaccination, Vaccines, Health Communication, Social Media
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