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Removal of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from water by adsorption: Role of PFAS chain length, effect of organic matter and challenges in adsorbent regeneration
Open accessAbstract
Poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a wide group of environmentally persistent organic compounds of industrial origin, which are of great concern due to their harmful impact on human health and ecosystems. Amongst long-chain PFAS, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) are the most detected in the aquatic environment, even though their use has been limited by recent regulations. Recently, more attention has been posed on the short-chain compounds, due to their use as an alternative to long-chain ones, and to their high mobility in the water bodies. Therefore, short-chain PFAS have been increasingly detected in the environmental compartments. The main process investigated and implemented for PFAS removal is adsorption. However, to date, most adsorption studies have focused on synthetic water. The main objective of this article is to provide a critical review of the recent peer-reviewed studies on the removal of long- and short-chain PFAS by adsorption. Specific objectives are to review 1) the performance of different adsorbents for both long- and short-chain PFAS, 2) the effect of organic matter, and 3) the adsorbent regeneration techniques. Strong anion-exchange resins seem to better remove both long- and short-chain PFAS. However, the adsorption capacity of short-chain PFAS is lower than that observed for long-chain PFAS. Therefore, short-chain PFAS removal is more challenging. Furthermore, the effect of organic matter on PFAS adsorption in water or wastewater under real environmental conditions is overlooked. In most studies high PFAS levels have been often investigated without organic matter presence. The rapid breakthrough of PFAS is also a limiting factor and the regeneration of PFAS exhausted adsorbents is very challenging and needs more research.
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“Additionally, the hydrophobic and lipophobic nature of PFAS can be primarily attributed to the low polarizability of fluorine atoms, combined with the presence of a stable terminal functional group attached to the fluoroalkyl chain (Gagliano et al., 2020; Meegoda et al., 2020).”
From Estimation of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) half-lives in human studies: a systematic review and meta-analysis (2024) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“At the same time, the salting-out effects promotes PFAS sorption and passive retention within the outer root tissues [82].”
From Influence of root morphology and salinity on PFAS uptake by ten Australian wetland plant species (2026) · cites this paper as [82]
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“Inorganic cations such as Ca 2 + and Na + and organic compounds compete for adsorbent space and have been shown to inhibit PFAS adsorption (Gagliano et al., 2020).”
From Review of emerging contaminants in green stormwater infrastructure: antibiotic resistance genes, microplastics, tire wear particles, PFAS, and temperature (2024) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
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“long-chain PFAS adsorb to granular activated carbon at a greater rate than short-chain compounds (Gagliano et al., 2020).”
From Review of emerging contaminants in green stormwater infrastructure: antibiotic resistance genes, microplastics, tire wear particles, PFAS, and temperature (2024) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
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“In addition, adsorption and oxidation-reduction reactions are primary removal mechanisms for PFAS and some microplastics and tire wear compounds, (Douna and Yousefi, 2023; Gagliano et al., 2020; Huang et al., 2023; Padervand et al., 2020; Silvani et al., 2019).”
From Review of emerging contaminants in green stormwater infrastructure: antibiotic resistance genes, microplastics, tire wear particles, PFAS, and temperature (2024) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
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“Anion exchange resins, while not commonplace in DWTPs [31], are more effective compared to activated carbon in removing both long-and short-chain PFAS from water [16]; in this configuration, GAC filtration may be replaced by anion exchange resins.”
From A Mini-Review of Full-Scale Drinking Water Treatment Plants for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Removal: Possible Solutions and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [16]
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“It is necessary to note that adsorption/filtration unit applying either activated carbon or anion exchange resins requires appropriate regeneration of spent materials (i.e., PFAS-exhausted materials), which is a major drawback [16].”
From A Mini-Review of Full-Scale Drinking Water Treatment Plants for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Removal: Possible Solutions and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [16]
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“In addition, previous studies showed that PFAS concentrations in wastewater from intensive industry were higher than 1 μ g L -1 (Vo et al., 2020; Gagliano et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2013a, 2013b; Rotander et al., 2015).”
From Occurrence of per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances in wastewater treatment plants in Northern Italy (2023) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
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“The effects of structure and chain length on PFAS removal mechanisms were reviewed; however, the studies were not focused on PFAS distribution in the global aquatic environment (Ateia et al., 2019; Buck et al., 2011; Gagliano et al., 2020; F. Li et al., 2020; Schulz et al., 2020; Yang et al., 2020).”
From Per and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) as a contaminant of emerging concern in surface water: A transboundary review of their occurrences and toxicity effects (2021) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
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“PFAS compound structural variabilities cause different PFAS species to have different levels of absorptivity, making this type of removal challenging for all types of PFAS species.”
From Review of emerging contaminants in green stormwater infrastructure: antibiotic resistance genes, microplastics, tire wear particles, PFAS, and temperature (2024) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
In the citing paper
“Consequently, complex water matrices can limit PFAS removal [18–21].”
From Comparative evaluation of PFAS-selective adsorbents in hard-to-treat residual waste streams (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“Complex water matrices can inhibit PFAS adsorption due to adsorbent characteristics and competition for sorption sites [19,20,29,30].”
From Comparative evaluation of PFAS-selective adsorbents in hard-to-treat residual waste streams (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“Interactions from competing constituents restrict PFAS access to available binding sites on GAC or IX resins.”
From Comparative evaluation of PFAS-selective adsorbents in hard-to-treat residual waste streams (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“Our approach in using complex residual streams contrasts with previous work, where PFAS adsorption is most typically evaluated in simulated or ideal matrices (e.g., ultrapure or deionized water) [20,27,41].”
From Comparative evaluation of PFAS-selective adsorbents in hard-to-treat residual waste streams (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“This mechanism aligns with previous studies on conventional resin regeneration, which reported similar interactions. [20,52].”
From Comparative evaluation of PFAS-selective adsorbents in hard-to-treat residual waste streams (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
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“Those looking for guidance on media selection should refer to other recent publications on the topic (Boyer et al. 2021; Ellis et al. 2022; Gagliano et al. 2020; Grieco et al. 2021; Lei et al. 2023; Medina et al. 2022).”
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“Differences in influent carbon are noted in Table 2, which is known to play a role in adsorption capacity of contactors (Gagliano et al., 2020).”
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“3) The logarithmic bioconcentration factors (BCF) for short-chain PFAS are all relatively low (< 1), indicating limited bioaccumulation potential in aquatic organisms and facilitating their aqueous-phase detection (Gagliano et al., 2020; Li et al., 2020).”
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“PFAS chain length and chemical class are known to impact IX and GAC adsorption as previously described (Gagliano et al., 2020; McCleaf et al., 2017; Rahman et al., 2014).”
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“In another work [14], where PFAS chemicals of different chain length have been compared, it was revealed that the adsorption of the longer-chain compounds is always higher than their shorter-chain counterparts.”
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Avoiding pitfalls when modeling removal of per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances by anion exchange
Haupert, L. M., Pressman, J. G., Speth, T. F., & Wahman, D. G. (2021) · AWWA Water Science · doi:10.1002/aws2.1222 · Cited by 17
“These species can reduce the effectiveness of PFAS sorption by competing for sites on the ion-exchange resin (Gagliano et al., 2019).”
BackgroundChang, S., Lu, C.-C., Lin, C., Wang, K.-S., Lee, M., & Liu, S.-H. (2021) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132619 · Cited by 17
Liu, G., Yan, X., Li, C., Hu, S., Yan, J., & Yan, B. (2022) · Journal of Hazardous Materials · doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.130303 · Cited by 17
Qin, F., Yao, W., Liu, Y., Zhu, B., Yang, Q., & Zheng, Y. (2023) · Cellulose · doi:10.1007/s10570-023-05090-2 · Cited by 17
“For PFOA elimination from polluted water, a wide range of adsorbents have been reported, such as activated carbon and biochar, molecularly imprinted polymers, mineral materials, and nanoparticle materials (Gagliano et al. 2020; Lei et al. 2022; Mukhopadhyay et al. 2021; Niu et al. 2020; Xu et al. 2020).”
BackgroundBioaccumulation of emerging contaminants in aquatic biota: PFAS as a case study
Chen, X., Qadeer, A., Liu, M., Deng, L., Zhou, P., Mwizerwa, I. T., Liu, S., Ajmal, Z., Xingru, Z., & Jiang, X. (2023) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-96002-1.00010-9 · Cited by 19
Application of β-Cyclodextrin Adsorbents in the Removal of Mixed Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances
Abaie, E., Kumar, M., Kumar, N., Sun, Y., Guelfo, J. L., Shen, Y., & Reible, D. D. (2024) · Toxics · doi:10.3390/toxics12040264 · Cited by 16
“…removed through Toxics 2024 , 12 , 264 4 of 13 hydrophobic interactions, while shorter-chain ones are influenced more by electrostatic interactions [32]. are also proposed for PFAS binding, as many studies showed that fl uorinated probes be tt er adsorption Similar to hydrophobic interactions,…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialAdsorption behaviors of perfluorooctanoic acid on aged microplastics
Ning, Z., Zhou, S., Yang, Y., Li, P., Zhao, Z., Zhang, W., Lü, L., & Ren, N. (2024) · Water Environment Research · doi:10.1002/wer.11080 · Cited by 19
“And electrostatic interaction, pore blockage, site competition, and partition effect had been taken into account as factors affecting the interaction between PFOA and virgin MPs (Gagliano et al., 2020; Joo et al., 2021).”
Medina, H., & Farmer, C. (2024) · Toxics · doi:10.3390/toxics12080610 · Cited by 22
Xu, Y., Yu, X., Wang, X., Song, Y., Wang, W., Zhang, M., Kong, D., Chen, Z., & Gu, C. (2024) · Chemical Engineering Journal · doi:10.1016/j.cej.2024.157833 · Cited by 19
Chambial, P., Thakur, N., Kushawaha, J., & Kumar, R. (2025) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2025.178803 · Cited by 20
Surfactant applications in oil and gas industry: Efficiency, toxicity, and remediation techniques
Gbadamosi, A. O., Badmus, S. O., Haruna, K., Patil, S. L., Kamal, M. S., Mahmoud, M., & Saleh, T. A. (2025) · Journal of Molecular Liquids · doi:10.1016/j.molliq.2025.127440 · Cited by 17
Al‐Mashaqbeh, O., Alsafadi, D., Alsalhi, L., Bartelt‐Hunt, S. L., & Snow, D. D. (2021) · Water · doi:10.3390/w13081084 · Cited by 17
“While CBZ removal by SMZ has been studied using spiked CBZ in ultrapure water and/or synthetic wastewater, there is little work on the CBZ removal from realistic wastewater matrix [23].”
BackgroundFormation and fate of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in a laboratory-scale urban wastewater system
Li, Y., Bräunig, J., Thai, P. K., Rebosura, M., Mueller, J. F., & Yuan, Z. (2022) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2022.118295 · Cited by 19
Biodegradation of Perfluorooctanoic Acid by Pseudomonas Plecoglossicida Strain DD4
Павлович, Ч. С., & Шарипов, Д. А. (2022) · Baghdad Science Journal · doi:10.21123/bsj.2022.6825 · Cited by 17
Tanzil, K., Ealias, A. M., George, G., & Panigrahi, S. (2024) · Journal of environmental chemical engineering · doi:10.1016/j.jece.2024.114974 · Cited by 16
Park, J., Kim, S., Park, Y., & Hwang, Y. (2025) · Journal of environmental chemical engineering · doi:10.1016/j.jece.2025.115721 · Cited by 15
How Do Novel PFAS Sorbents Fit into Current Engineering Paradigm?
Burkhardt, J. B., Speth, T. F., Gorzelnik, S., Gorzalski, A. S., Coronell, O., El‐Khattabi, A. R., & Ateia, M. (2025) · ACS ES&T Engineering · doi:10.1021/acsestengg.5c00036 · Cited by 17
Wang, Q., Xu, R., Zha, F., Liu, S., & Yan, H. (2025) · Chemical Engineering Journal · doi:10.1016/j.cej.2025.164386 · Cited by 16
Ofiera, L. M., Wintgens, T., & Kazner, C. (2025) · Environmental Technology & Innovation · doi:10.1016/j.eti.2025.104319 · Cited by 20
Hazrati, S., Kumpienė, J., Leiviskä, T., & Carabante, I. (2025) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-025-37024-9 · Cited by 19
“Per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), characterized by their unique chemical attributes such as surface-active properties and persistent nature, are extensively employed in various industrial and consumer products (Gagliano et al. 2020; Martin et al. 2019).”
Sustainability assessment of PFAS adsorbents for groundwater remediation
Moeini, M., Modaresahmadi, K., Tran, T. T., & Reddy, K. R. (2022) · Materials Today Proceedings · doi:10.1016/j.matpr.2022.03.014 · Cited by 16
Tailored Polyanilines Are High-Affinity Adsorbents for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances
Olshansky, Y., Gomeniuc, A., Chorover, J., Abrell, L. M., Field, J. A., Hatton, J. W., He, J., & Sierra‐Álvarez, R. (2022) · ACS ES&T Water · doi:10.1021/acsestwater.2c00166 · Cited by 16
Mancinelli, M., Martucci, A., & Ahrens, L. (2023) · Environmental Science Water Research & Technology · doi:10.1039/d3ew00225j · Cited by 16
Groffen, T., Keirsebelik, H., Dendievel, H., Falcou-Préfol, M., Bervoets, L., & Schoelynck, J. (2023) · Journal of Hazardous Materials · doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.133024 · Cited by 18
Uptake and cellular responses of Microcystis aeruginosa to PFOS in various environmental conditions
Liao, J., Sun, B., Wang, C., Cao, Z., Wu, Z., An, X., Liang, Z., Huang, X., & Lü, Y. (2024) · Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety · doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2024.116041 · Cited by 16
Esfahani, E. B., Zeidabadi, F. A., Jafarikojour, M., & Mohseni, M. (2024) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.175796 · Cited by 17
Litvanová, K., Klemetsrud, B., Xiao, F., & Kubátová, A. (2024) · Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry · doi:10.1021/jasms.4c00357 · Cited by 16
Po, W., Challis, J. K., He, Z., Wong, C. S., & Zeng, E. Y. (2021) · Environmental Science Processes & Impacts · doi:10.1039/d1em00436k · Cited by 16
Investigation into the adhesion properties of PFAS on model surfaces
Welchert, J., Dunmyer, M., Carroll, L., Martinez, I., Lane, T. J., Bellido-Aguilar, D. A., Savagatrup, S., & Karanikola, V. (2024) · RSC Applied Interfaces · doi:10.1039/d4lf00228h · Cited by 15
Rehnstam, S., Smith, S. J., & Ahrens, L. (2024) · Journal of Hazardous Materials · doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.136316 · Cited by 16
Interfacial adsorption and dynamics of fluorotelomers with soil minerals – mechanistic insights
Loganathan, N., Ashby, L., Schumm, C. E., & Wilson, A. K. (2024) · Environmental Science Nano · doi:10.1039/d4en00465e · Cited by 16
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Iron Doping of hBN Enhances the Photocatalytic Oxidative Defluorination of Perfluorooctanoic Acid
Glass, S., Kannan, H., Bangala, J. I., Chen, Y., Metz, J., Mowzoon-Mogharrabi, R., Gao, G., Ashokkumar, M., Wong, M. S., Ajayan, P. M., et al. (2025) · ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces · doi:10.1021/acsami.5c01963 · Cited by 16
Guo, Y., Hua, Y., Chen, X., Li, Y., Chen, C., & Dai, X. (2025) · Journal of Hazardous Materials · doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2025.139989 · Cited by 15
Amin, K. A., Ahmad, A., Ali, S. A., Alkaabi, A., Alazem, G., Amreen, H., Safar, H. A., & Ashraf, S. M. (2025) · Chemical Engineering Journal Advances · doi:10.1016/j.ceja.2025.100910 · Cited by 15
Narasimhappa, P., Singh, S., Varshney, R., Chauhan, V., Kour, R., Ramamurthy, P. C., & Shehata, N. (2025) · RSC Advances · doi:10.1039/d5ra07672b · Cited by 19
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Metadata
- Authors
- Gagliano, E., Sgroi, M., Falciglia, P. P., Vagliasindi, F. G. A., & Roccaro, P.
- Affiliations
- University of Catania (IT)
- Corresponding author
- Roccaro, Paolo
- Venue
- Water Research
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-03
- Volume
- 171
- Pages
- 115381
- ISSN
- 0043-1354 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2995462441
- Cited by
- 1,249
- References
- 91
- Citations by year
- 2026: 245 · 2025: 317 · 2024: 238 · 2023: 184 · 2022: 143 · 2021: 95 · 2020: 27
- FWCI
- 5.58
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Water Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Università Politecnica delle Marche (Università Politecnica delle Marche) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- CINECA IRIS Institutial Research Information System (University of Genoa) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Università di Catania
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Adsorption and biosorption for pollutant removal
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Environmental remediation with nanomaterials
- Keywords
- per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, PFAS removal, adsorption, short-chain PFAS, long-chain PFAS, perfluorooctanoic acid, PFOS, organic matter, adsorbent regeneration, anion exchange resin, adsorption capacity, breakthrough, water treatment, wastewater treatment
- MeSH terms
- Adsorption, Fluorocarbons, Humans, Water, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Ecosystem
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