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Removal of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from water by adsorption: Role of PFAS chain length, effect of organic matter and challenges in adsorbent regeneration
Open accessAbstract
Poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a wide group of environmentally persistent organic compounds of industrial origin, which are of great concern due to their harmful impact on human health and ecosystems. Amongst long-chain PFAS, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) are the most detected in the aquatic environment, even though their use has been limited by recent regulations. Recently, more attention has been posed on the short-chain compounds, due to their use as an alternative to long-chain ones, and to their high mobility in the water bodies. Therefore, short-chain PFAS have been increasingly detected in the environmental compartments. The main process investigated and implemented for PFAS removal is adsorption. However, to date, most adsorption studies have focused on synthetic water. The main objective of this article is to provide a critical review of the recent peer-reviewed studies on the removal of long- and short-chain PFAS by adsorption. Specific objectives are to review 1) the performance of different adsorbents for both long- and short-chain PFAS, 2) the effect of organic matter, and 3) the adsorbent regeneration techniques. Strong anion-exchange resins seem to better remove both long- and short-chain PFAS. However, the adsorption capacity of short-chain PFAS is lower than that observed for long-chain PFAS. Therefore, short-chain PFAS removal is more challenging. Furthermore, the effect of organic matter on PFAS adsorption in water or wastewater under real environmental conditions is overlooked. In most studies high PFAS levels have been often investigated without organic matter presence. The rapid breakthrough of PFAS is also a limiting factor and the regeneration of PFAS exhausted adsorbents is very challenging and needs more research.
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“Additionally, the hydrophobic and lipophobic nature of PFAS can be primarily attributed to the low polarizability of fluorine atoms, combined with the presence of a stable terminal functional group attached to the fluoroalkyl chain (Gagliano et al., 2020; Meegoda et al., 2020).”
From Estimation of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) half-lives in human studies: a systematic review and meta-analysis (2024) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“At the same time, the salting-out effects promotes PFAS sorption and passive retention within the outer root tissues [82].”
From Influence of root morphology and salinity on PFAS uptake by ten Australian wetland plant species (2026) · cites this paper as [82]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Inorganic cations such as Ca 2 + and Na + and organic compounds compete for adsorbent space and have been shown to inhibit PFAS adsorption (Gagliano et al., 2020).”
From Review of emerging contaminants in green stormwater infrastructure: antibiotic resistance genes, microplastics, tire wear particles, PFAS, and temperature (2024) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“long-chain PFAS adsorb to granular activated carbon at a greater rate than short-chain compounds (Gagliano et al., 2020).”
From Review of emerging contaminants in green stormwater infrastructure: antibiotic resistance genes, microplastics, tire wear particles, PFAS, and temperature (2024) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“In addition, adsorption and oxidation-reduction reactions are primary removal mechanisms for PFAS and some microplastics and tire wear compounds, (Douna and Yousefi, 2023; Gagliano et al., 2020; Huang et al., 2023; Padervand et al., 2020; Silvani et al., 2019).”
From Review of emerging contaminants in green stormwater infrastructure: antibiotic resistance genes, microplastics, tire wear particles, PFAS, and temperature (2024) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
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In the citing paper
“Anion exchange resins, while not commonplace in DWTPs [31], are more effective compared to activated carbon in removing both long-and short-chain PFAS from water [16]; in this configuration, GAC filtration may be replaced by anion exchange resins.”
From A Mini-Review of Full-Scale Drinking Water Treatment Plants for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Removal: Possible Solutions and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [16]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
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“It is necessary to note that adsorption/filtration unit applying either activated carbon or anion exchange resins requires appropriate regeneration of spent materials (i.e., PFAS-exhausted materials), which is a major drawback [16].”
From A Mini-Review of Full-Scale Drinking Water Treatment Plants for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Removal: Possible Solutions and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [16]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“In addition, previous studies showed that PFAS concentrations in wastewater from intensive industry were higher than 1 μ g L -1 (Vo et al., 2020; Gagliano et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2013a, 2013b; Rotander et al., 2015).”
From Occurrence of per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances in wastewater treatment plants in Northern Italy (2023) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The effects of structure and chain length on PFAS removal mechanisms were reviewed; however, the studies were not focused on PFAS distribution in the global aquatic environment (Ateia et al., 2019; Buck et al., 2011; Gagliano et al., 2020; F. Li et al., 2020; Schulz et al., 2020; Yang et al., 2020).”
From Per and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) as a contaminant of emerging concern in surface water: A transboundary review of their occurrences and toxicity effects (2021) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
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In the citing paper
“PFAS compound structural variabilities cause different PFAS species to have different levels of absorptivity, making this type of removal challenging for all types of PFAS species.”
From Review of emerging contaminants in green stormwater infrastructure: antibiotic resistance genes, microplastics, tire wear particles, PFAS, and temperature (2024) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
In the citing paper
“Consequently, complex water matrices can limit PFAS removal [18–21].”
From Comparative evaluation of PFAS-selective adsorbents in hard-to-treat residual waste streams (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“Complex water matrices can inhibit PFAS adsorption due to adsorbent characteristics and competition for sorption sites [19,20,29,30].”
From Comparative evaluation of PFAS-selective adsorbents in hard-to-treat residual waste streams (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“Interactions from competing constituents restrict PFAS access to available binding sites on GAC or IX resins.”
From Comparative evaluation of PFAS-selective adsorbents in hard-to-treat residual waste streams (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“Our approach in using complex residual streams contrasts with previous work, where PFAS adsorption is most typically evaluated in simulated or ideal matrices (e.g., ultrapure or deionized water) [20,27,41].”
From Comparative evaluation of PFAS-selective adsorbents in hard-to-treat residual waste streams (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“This mechanism aligns with previous studies on conventional resin regeneration, which reported similar interactions. [20,52].”
From Comparative evaluation of PFAS-selective adsorbents in hard-to-treat residual waste streams (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
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Citations
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Fluorine-tailed glass fibers for adsorption of volatile perfluorinated compounds via F-F interaction
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“Among the different families of PFAS, perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs) or perfluoroalkyl sulfonic acids (PFSAs) have attracted more interest due to their exceptional chemical stability (Gagliano et al. 2020).”
Ionic liquid-grafted activated carbon for selective removal of PFAS by adsorption in drinking water
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Wang, J., Habiba, U., Reza, M. S., Fattah, I. M. R., Altaee, A., & Mahlia, T. M. I. (2025) · Journal of Water Process Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.jwpe.2025.109341 · Cited by 15
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“In addition, irrigation water samples of 21 PFASs in 2019 showed a maximum concentration of 369.9 ng·L−1 around the fluorine chemical park (FCP) in Jiangsu Province, China (Gagliano et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialProcess to separate per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances from water using colloidal gas aphrons
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“We adopted the Freundlich isotherm, in line with the majority of studies (Brusseau et al. 2019a; Guelfo et al. 2020; Silva et al. 2022a) that favor it over the Langmuir isotherm (Gagliano et al. 2020) for modeling the partitioning between liquid and solid phases.”
MethodAir-water interfacial properties of perfluorosulfonic acid salts with different chain lengths
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“While numerous studies have already reported the adsorption behavior of PFAS onto a series of activated carbon materials (Gagliano et al., 2020; Ochoa-Herrera & Sierra-Alvarez, 2008), this current study confirmed the specific HD 3000 with a specially designed mesoporous structure for ZVI placement is effective to adso…”
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“1 of 15 https://doi.org/10.1002/aws2.1259 Adsorption processes such as granular activated carbon (GAC) and ion exchange have been studied and shown to be effective techniques for the removal of PFAS from impacted water (Crone et al., 2019; Gagliano et al., 2020).”
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“In seawater, PFOA and PFOS exist as free acid anions, causing electrostatic repulsion with negatively charged microalgae (Gagliano et al., 2020).”
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“Per-and polyfluoroalkyl (PFAS) substances have recently attracted a lot of attention because of their ubiquitous presence in the environment and potential effects on human health [1,2].”
Assessing the viability of bio-based adsorbents for PFAS removal
Roman, J., Kemperman, A. J. B., van der Meer, W., & Wood, J. A. (2025) · Chemical Engineering Science · doi:10.1016/j.ces.2025.121215 · Cited by 12
Removal of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances Using Commercially Available Sorbents
Zhang, Z., Joudiazar, S., Satpathy, A., Fernando, E. Y., Rahmati, R., Kim, J. Y., de Falco, G., Datta, R., & Sarkar, D. (2025) · Materials · doi:10.3390/ma18061299 · Cited by 14
“Among all these techniques, adsorption stands out as a particularly promising method for PFAS removal from water, owing to its cost-effectiveness and operational simplicity [7,10,11].”
Trifoglio, A., Mantovani, S., Khaliha, S., Kovtun, A., Marforio, T. D., Calvaresi, M., & Melucci, M. (2025) · Nanoscale · doi:10.1039/d5nr00502g · Cited by 12
Interference of PFAS sorption on zeolites from natural water characteristics
Sheehan, N. P., Ponge, C. A., Pankratz, A., Hutchison, J. M., Laird, B. B., Nguyen, N. P., Shiflett, M. B., Timalsina, D., Wang, M., & Peltier, E. F. (2025) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2025.144414 · Cited by 12
Qiu, R., Gao, X., Xiao, Y., Yu, D., & Wang, B. (2025) · Separation and Purification Technology · doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2025.133406 · Cited by 12
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Pore size effects upon adsorption of PFAS in covalent organic frameworks: molecular dynamics study
Ricard, T. C., Schutt, T. C., Bresnahan, C. G., & Shukla, M. K. (2025) · Environmental Science Advances · doi:10.1039/d4va00422a · Cited by 13
Hu, Y., Zhan, Y., Wei, C., Chen, F., Cheng, J., Shen, Y., Zhou, Z., Wang, L., & Liang, Y. (2023) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.161621 · Cited by 11
Mohamed, B. A., Nicomel, N. R., Hamid, H., & Li, L. Y. (2023) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.162392 · Cited by 14
Olmsted, J. L., Ahmadireskety, A., Da Silva, B. F., Robey, N., Aristizabal-Henao, J. J., Bonzongo, J.-C. J., & Bowden, J. A. (2021) · Journal of Environmental Engineering · doi:10.1061/(asce)ee.1943-7870.0001906 · Cited by 10
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Hu, J. S., Qiu, Y., Gu, B., Yao, N., Lou, Z., Cheng, Z., Zhang, X., & Yu, J. (2023) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121014 · Cited by 11
Research Progress of Perfluoroalkyl Substances in Edible Oil—A Review
Han, Y., & Cao, X. (2023) · Foods · doi:10.3390/foods12132624 · Cited by 11
“Their chemical structure also contains a charged functional group attached at one end [37].”
BackgroundCharacterizing PFAS concentrations in drinking water treatment residuals
Murray, C. C., Gorzalski, A. S., Rosenfeldt, E. J., Owen, C., & Moody, C. (2024) · AWWA Water Science · doi:10.1002/aws2.1367 · Cited by 11
“…contribute to their widespread use by commercial and industrial users and also makes these chemicals highly recalcitrant to conventional drinking water treatment processes and disinfection (Appleman et al., 2014; Crone et al., 2019; Gagliano et al., 2020; Rahman et al., 2014; Zhong et al., 2023).”
BackgroundMetallopolymer-based block copolymers for perfluorinated substances (PFAS) and ion removal
Rittner, T., Pusse, S., Boßmann, B., Staudt, K., Haben, A., Kautenburger, R., Beck, H. P., & Gallei, M. (2024) · Journal of Materials Chemistry C · doi:10.1039/d4tc03546a · Cited by 11
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Ilieva, Z., Salehi, R., Aqeel, H., Li, Y., Sühring, R., Liss, S. N., & Hamza, R. (2025) · Journal of Hazardous Materials · doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2025.137903 · Cited by 11
Xue, Y., Wu, S. J., Zhang, Z., & Wang, C. (2025) · Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances · doi:10.1016/j.hazadv.2025.100709 · Cited by 11
Wang, Q., Xu, R., Zha, F., Xu, L., Kang, B., & Han, H. (2025) · Computers and Geotechnics · doi:10.1016/j.compgeo.2025.107461 · Cited by 11
Sookhak Lari, K., Reinhardt, A., Warden, A. C., Rayner, J. L., & Davis, G. B. (2025) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.5c01748 · Cited by 11
Shurson, G. C. (2025) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su17156957 · Cited by 12
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Biochar and biochar composites for poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) sorption
Navarathna, C. M., Keel, M. G., Rodrigo, P. M., Carrasco, C., Ramirez, A., Jamison, H., Mohan, D., & Mlsna, T. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-822225-6.00005-1 · Cited by 11
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Dynamic Worm-Gel Materials as Tunable, Regenerable Adsorbents for Water Treatment
Shahrokhinia, A., Tafazoli, S., Rijal, S., Shuster, D. B., Scanga, R. A., Morefield, D. J., Garay, J., Rocheleau, R. A., Kashani, M. B., Nagarajan, R., et al. (2024) · Macromolecules · doi:10.1021/acs.macromol.3c02090 · Cited by 10
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“Additionally, microbial biodegradation primarily breaks carbon-carbon bonds rather than mineralizing PFAS, leading to the accumulation of more recalcitrant transformation products [45].”
Influence of Charge Compensating Anions on the Adsorption of Perfluorobutanesulfonate in MOF-808
Mikel, J., Berens, B., Versnik, G., Wadzinski, K. A., Rottiger, T., Siewert, M., Stellpflug, O., Riha, S. C., & Mondloch, J. E. (2025) · ACS Omega · doi:10.1021/acsomega.5c05815 · Cited by 10
Jrad, A., Garai, B., Aouad, S., Das, G., Duncan, C. M., Olson, M. A., & Trabolsi, A. (2025) · Chem · doi:10.1016/j.chempr.2025.102758 · Cited by 10
Hassan, R. K., Sallam, N. A., Alrefaey, K. A., Shekib, M. A., Su, Y., Salatein, N. M., & Fahim, I. S. (2025) · Discover Chemical Engineering · doi:10.1007/s43938-025-00089-6 · Cited by 12
“Moreover, such a system could be tailored to address a wide range of PFAS compounds, including both long-chain and short-chain variants, making it a versatile solution for diverse contamination scenarios [17].”
Functional High-Swelling Cyclodextrin Polymer for Rapid Removal of PFAS from Water
Zhang, K., Mu, X., Wang, Z., Shi, Y., Xia, F., & Zhang, X. (2025) · ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces · doi:10.1021/acsami.5c20120 · Cited by 10
Toward Standardized Evaluation of PFAS Sorbents
Yang, Z., Su, Z., Liu, K., Yu, C., Yang, Z., Yang, H., & Zhang, C. (2025) · Advanced Materials · doi:10.1002/adma.202516944 · Cited by 11
Sun, Y., Patyal, A. S., Hana, G., Wu, K., Real, I., Zhou, C., Guelfo, J. L., Howe, J. D., & Shen, Y. (2025) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2025.125006 · Cited by 11
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“Moreover, while AOPs can effectively break down PFAS, they may also generate intermediate fluorinated by-products, which can sometimes be more mobile or persistent than the parent compounds (Gagliano et al. 2020).”
Moawed, E. A., Kiwaan, H. A., El-Zakzouk, S. K., El-Sonbati, M. A., & El‐Zahed, M. M. (2022) · Brazilian Journal of Chemical Engineering · doi:10.1007/s43153-022-00258-y · Cited by 10
“This may be due to availability of a large number of active sites for occupation at the initial stages which were not easily accessible after a period of time as the solute molecules on the solid and bulk phases repel and the binding sites become saturated with dye molecules (Gagliano et al. 2020; Narkkun et al. 2019).”
BackgroundRemoval of perfluoroalkyl acids from aqueous media by surfactant-modified clinoptilolites
Hedayati, M. S., Nicomel, N. R., Abida, O., & Li, L. Y. (2024) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-024-32194-4 · Cited by 11
“…owing to their extensive use for decades as surfactant intermediates (e.g., firefighting foams and aircraft hydraulic fluids), and in waterproofing treatments for textiles (e.g., car-pet and clothes) and manufacturing of household products (e.g., non-stick cookware) (Gagliano et al. 2020).”
Correlation between the stability and toxicity of PFAS–nanoplastic colloids
Bere, K. V., Csenki, Z., Kaszab, E., Urbányi, B., Szabó, I., & Szilágyi, I. (2025) · Environmental Science Nano · doi:10.1039/d4en00948g · Cited by 10
“Under the experimental conditions applied, the carboxylic head group of PFHxA is deprotonated due to its low p K a value ( − 0.16), 29 i.e. , it possesses a negative charge, while the NPL surface is oppositely charged, as discussed above.”
InfluentialMurakami, T., Saito, N., Matsukami, H., Takaoka, M., & Fujimori, T. (2025) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2025.144165 · Cited by 12
Adsorption of Seven PFAS on Beta Zeolite
Ponge, C. A., Sheehan, N. P., Peters, A. L., Corbin, D. R., Peltier, E. F., Hutchison, J. M., & Shiflett, M. B. (2025) · Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research · doi:10.1021/acs.iecr.4c04648 · Cited by 10
Metadata
- Authors
- Gagliano, E., Sgroi, M., Falciglia, P. P., Vagliasindi, F. G. A., & Roccaro, P.
- Affiliations
- University of Catania (IT)
- Corresponding author
- Roccaro, Paolo
- Venue
- Water Research
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-03
- Volume
- 171
- Pages
- 115381
- ISSN
- 0043-1354 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2995462441
- Cited by
- 1,249
- References
- 91
- Citations by year
- 2026: 245 · 2025: 317 · 2024: 238 · 2023: 184 · 2022: 143 · 2021: 95 · 2020: 27
- FWCI
- 5.58
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Water Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Università Politecnica delle Marche (Università Politecnica delle Marche) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- CINECA IRIS Institutial Research Information System (University of Genoa) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Università di Catania
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Adsorption and biosorption for pollutant removal
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Environmental remediation with nanomaterials
- Keywords
- per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, PFAS removal, adsorption, short-chain PFAS, long-chain PFAS, perfluorooctanoic acid, PFOS, organic matter, adsorbent regeneration, anion exchange resin, adsorption capacity, breakthrough, water treatment, wastewater treatment
- MeSH terms
- Adsorption, Fluorocarbons, Humans, Water, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Ecosystem
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