Detection of Poly- and Perfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) in U.S. Drinking Water Linked to Industrial Sites, Military Fire Training Areas, and Wastewater Treatment Plants
Open accessAbstract
Drinking water contamination with poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) poses risks to the developmental, immune, metabolic, and endocrine health of consumers. We present a spatial analysis of 2013-2015 national drinking water PFAS concentrations from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (US EPA) third Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule (UCMR3) program. The number of industrial sites that manufacture or use these compounds, the number of military fire training areas, and the number of wastewater treatment plants are all significant predictors of PFAS detection frequencies and concentrations in public water supplies. Among samples with detectable PFAS levels, each additional military site within a watershed's eight-digit hydrologic unit is associated with a 20% increase in PFHxS, a 10% increase in both PFHpA and PFOA, and a 35% increase in PFOS. The number of civilian airports with personnel trained in the use of aqueous film-forming foams is significantly associated with the detection of PFASs above the minimal reporting level. We find drinking water supplies for 6 million U.S. residents exceed US EPA's lifetime health advisory (70 ng/L) for PFOS and PFOA. Lower analytical reporting limits and additional sampling of smaller utilities serving <10000 individuals and private wells would greatly assist in further identifying PFAS contamination sources.
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The majority of PFAS occurrence studies have focused on urbanized regions with known point sources, highlighting the need for monitoring in rural or less-characterized areas.
“Additionally, the majority of PFAS occurrence studies have focused on urbanized regions with known point sources, 10 highlighting the need for monitoring efforts in rural or lesscharacterized areas.”
From Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Surface Water and Fluvial Sediments of a Rural Gulf Coast Watershed: A Year-long Spatiotemporal Assessment (2026) · cites this paper as [10]
The Introduction (page not provided) says previous studies mainly focused on individual point sources and site-specific drinking-water exposures. Results and Discussion, “Current Data Limitations and Future Monitoring Efforts” (page not provided), calls for more sampling of small utilities and private wells. The paper does not say those earlier studies predominantly examined urbanized regions or specifically recommend rural monitoring. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPrevious studies have reported industrial influences on the contamination of groundwater with PFAS.
“Previous studies have reported industrial influences on the contamination of groundwater with PFAS [10,38,39,51].”
From Investigating the extent of PFAS contamination in the Upper Danube Basin across environmental compartments (2025) · cites this paper as [51]
The Introduction reports elevated PFAS in drinking water near industrial sites, and Results and Discussion finds more industrial sites in watersheds with detectable PFAS in drinking water. It also reports PFAS detections in water sourced from groundwater, but does not establish that industrial sites specifically influenced groundwater contamination. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe observed sulfonate signature, especially high concentrations of PFHxS and PFOS, can be characteristic of historic AFFF use.
“This type of observed sulfonate signature, especially high concentrations of PFHxS and PFOS, can be characteristic of historic AFFF use.”
Drinking water contamination by PFAS is widespread near more than 300 U.S. military bases that used AFFF for fire training and firefighting.
“Drinking water contamination by per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) is widespread near more than 300 United States (U.S.) military bases that used aqueous film-forming foams (AFFF) for fire training and firefighting activities.”
From Centurial Persistence of Forever Chemicals at Military Fire Training Sites (2023) · cites this paper as [2]
Military sites contaminated by AFFF manufactured by 3M are distinguishable by high PFOS concentrations in groundwater and downgradient drinking water sources.
“Military sites contaminated by AFFF manufactured by 3M are distinguishable by high PFOS concentrations in groundwater and downgradient drinking water sources (Figure 1a,b).2,21”
From Centurial Persistence of Forever Chemicals at Military Fire Training Sites (2023) · cites this paper as [2]
PFAS sources are widespread.
“PFAS sources are widespread,5,9,10”
From Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Groundwater Used as a Source of Drinking Water in the Eastern United States (2022) · cites this paper as [10]
PFAS and pharmaceuticals are known to co-occur in sources associated with human-waste disposal (e.g., septic-system/landfill leachate and wastewater treatment plants).
“PFAS and pharmaceuticals, however, are known to co-occur in sources associated with human-waste disposal (e.g., septic-system/landfill leachate and wastewater treatment plants).10,54−56”
From Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Groundwater Used as a Source of Drinking Water in the Eastern United States (2022) · cites this paper as [10]
Similar spatial relations have been observed in other regional studies.
“Similar spatial relations have been observed in other regional studies.10”
From Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Groundwater Used as a Source of Drinking Water in the Eastern United States (2022) · cites this paper as [10]
Most PFAS are recalcitrant through conventional water treatment processes, and therefore wastewater effluents can contain PFAS originating from domestic and industrial sources.
“Most PFAS are recalcitrant through conventional water treatment processes and, therefore, wastewater effluents can contain PFAS that has originated from domestic and industrial sources [11, 12].”
From An investigation into per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in nineteen Australian wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) (2019) · cites this paper as [12]
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“Previous studies have reported industrial influences on the contamination of groundwater with PFAS [10, 38, 39, 51].”
- Authors
- Hu, X. C., Andrews, D. Q., Lindstrom, A. B., Bruton, T. A., Schaider, L. A., Grandjean, P., Lohmann, R., Carignan, C. C., Blum, A., Balan, S. A., Higgins, C. P., & Sunderland, E. M.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Environmental Working Group , ,
- Environmental Protection Agency (US)
- University of California, Berkeley (US)
- Silent Spring Institute (US)
- University of Rhode Island (US)
- California Department of Toxic Substances Control , 1001 I Street , , , (Formerly at the Green Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94705, United States)
- Colorado School of Mines (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hu, Xindi C.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Environmental Science & Technology Letters
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2016-08-09
- Volume
- 3
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 344-350
- ISSN
- 2328-8930 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5062567
- OpenAlex
- W2497102241
- Cited by
- 1,333
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2026: 142 · 2025: 188 · 2024: 171 · 2023: 159 · 2022: 168 · 2021: 157 · 2020: 136 · 2019: 89 · 2018: 71 · 2017: 42 · 2016: 8
- FWCI
- 45.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Environmental Science & Technology Letters (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard (DASH) (Harvard University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Journal of Media Literacy Education (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (P42 ES004705)
- Richard and Susan Smith Family Foundation (NA)
- Superfund Research Center, University of California (NA)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Water Treatment and Disinfection
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Chemical Analysis and Environmental Impact
- Keywords
- PFAS, perfluorinated compounds, drinking water contamination, PFOS, perfluorooctanoic acid, PFHxS, PFHpA, industrial site, wastewater treatment plants, aqueous film-forming foam, airports, spatial analysis, hydrologic units, public water supply
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