Removal of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from water by adsorption: Role of PFAS chain length, effect of organic matter and challenges in adsorbent regeneration
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Poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a wide group of environmentally persistent organic compounds of industrial origin, which are of great concern due to their harmful impact on human health and ecosystems. Amongst long-chain PFAS, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) are the most detected in the aquatic environment, even though their use has been limited by recent regulations. Recently, more attention has been posed on the short-chain compounds, due to their use as an alternative to long-chain ones, and to their high mobility in the water bodies. Therefore, short-chain PFAS have been increasingly detected in the environmental compartments. The main process investigated and implemented for PFAS removal is adsorption. However, to date, most adsorption studies have focused on synthetic water. The main objective of this article is to provide a critical review of the recent peer-reviewed studies on the removal of long- and short-chain PFAS by adsorption. Specific objectives are to review 1) the performance of different adsorbents for both long- and short-chain PFAS, 2) the effect of organic matter, and 3) the adsorbent regeneration techniques. Strong anion-exchange resins seem to better remove both long- and short-chain PFAS. However, the adsorption capacity of short-chain PFAS is lower than that observed for long-chain PFAS. Therefore, short-chain PFAS removal is more challenging. Furthermore, the effect of organic matter on PFAS adsorption in water or wastewater under real environmental conditions is overlooked. In most studies high PFAS levels have been often investigated without organic matter presence. The rapid breakthrough of PFAS is also a limiting factor and the regeneration of PFAS exhausted adsorbents is very challenging and needs more research.
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The hydrophobic and lipophobic nature of PFAS can be primarily attributed to the low polarizability of fluorine atoms, combined with the presence of a stable terminal functional group attached to the fluoroalkyl chain.
“Additionally, the hydrophobic and lipophobic nature of PFAS can be primarily attributed to the low polarizability of fluorine atoms, combined with the presence of a stable terminal functional group attached to the fluoroalkyl chain (Gagliano et al., 2020; Meegoda et al., 2020).”
From Estimation of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) half-lives in human studies: a systematic review and meta-analysis (2024) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
Section 1.2 (PFAS properties) attributes PFAS’ hydrophobic and lipophobic properties primarily to the low polarizability of fluorine atoms. It says separately that the terminal functional group provides chemical stability, not that it contributes to those hydrophobic and lipophobic properties. (LLM, conf=0.91)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSalting-out effects promote PFAS sorption and passive retention within the outer root tissues.
“At the same time, the salting-out effects promotes PFAS sorption and passive retention within the outer root tissues [82].”
From Influence of root morphology and salinity on PFAS uptake by ten Australian wetland plant species (2026) · cites this paper as [82]
Section 2.1 (page unavailable) says that at high salt concentrations, salting-out reduces PFAS solubility and can encourage adsorption onto adsorbent surfaces. It does not address passive retention in outer root tissues; its discussion concerns materials used to remove PFAS from water. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAdsorption and oxidation-reduction reactions are primary removal mechanisms for PFAS and some microplastics and tire wear compounds.
“In addition, adsorption and oxidation-reduction reactions are primary removal mechanisms for PFAS and some microplastics and tire wear compounds, (Douna and Yousefi, 2023; Gagliano et al., 2020; Huang et al., 2023; Padervand et al., 2020; Silvani et al., 2019).”
From Review of emerging contaminants in green stormwater infrastructure: antibiotic resistance genes, microplastics, tire wear particles, PFAS, and temperature (2024) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
Section 1.5 (PFAS removal) identifies adsorption as an established, effective method for removing PFAS. It says PFAS resist oxidation by ozone and hydroxyl radicals and that advanced oxidation often degrades them only partially, so it does not support oxidation-reduction as a primary PFAS removal mechanism. The paper also does not establish removal mechanisms for microplastics or tire wear compounds. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAnion exchange resins are more effective compared to activated carbon in removing both long- and short-chain PFAS from water.
“Anion exchange resins, while not commonplace in DWTPs [31], are more effective compared to activated carbon in removing both long-and short-chain PFAS from water [16]; in this configuration, GAC filtration may be replaced by anion exchange resins.”
From A Mini-Review of Full-Scale Drinking Water Treatment Plants for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Removal: Possible Solutions and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [16]
Adsorption/filtration units applying either activated carbon or anion exchange resins require appropriate regeneration of spent materials, which is a major drawback.
“It is necessary to note that adsorption/filtration unit applying either activated carbon or anion exchange resins requires appropriate regeneration of spent materials (i.e., PFAS-exhausted materials), which is a major drawback [16].”
From A Mini-Review of Full-Scale Drinking Water Treatment Plants for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Removal: Possible Solutions and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [16]
Previous studies showed that PFAS concentrations in wastewater from intensive industry were higher than 1 μg L-1.
“In addition, previous studies showed that PFAS concentrations in wastewater from intensive industry were higher than 1 μ g L -1 (Vo et al., 2020; Gagliano et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2013a, 2013b; Rotander et al., 2015).”
From Occurrence of per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances in wastewater treatment plants in Northern Italy (2023) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
The effects of structure and chain length on PFAS removal mechanisms were reviewed; however, the studies were not focused on PFAS distribution in the global aquatic environment.
“The effects of structure and chain length on PFAS removal mechanisms were reviewed; however, the studies were not focused on PFAS distribution in the global aquatic environment (Ateia et al., 2019; Buck et al., 2011; Gagliano et al., 2020; F. Li et al., 2020; Schulz et al., 2020; Yang et al., 2020).”
From Per and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) as a contaminant of emerging concern in surface water: A transboundary review of their occurrences and toxicity effects (2021) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
Complex water matrices can limit PFAS removal.
“Consequently, complex water matrices can limit PFAS removal [18–21].”
From Comparative evaluation of PFAS-selective adsorbents in hard-to-treat residual waste streams (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
Complex water matrices can inhibit PFAS adsorption due to adsorbent characteristics and competition for sorption sites.
“Complex water matrices can inhibit PFAS adsorption due to adsorbent characteristics and competition for sorption sites [19,20,29,30].”
From Comparative evaluation of PFAS-selective adsorbents in hard-to-treat residual waste streams (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
Interactions from competing constituents restrict PFAS access to available binding sites on GAC or IX resins.
“Interactions from competing constituents restrict PFAS access to available binding sites on GAC or IX resins.”
From Comparative evaluation of PFAS-selective adsorbents in hard-to-treat residual waste streams (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
Our approach in using complex residual streams contrasts with previous work, where PFAS adsorption is most typically evaluated in simulated or ideal matrices.
“Our approach in using complex residual streams contrasts with previous work, where PFAS adsorption is most typically evaluated in simulated or ideal matrices (e.g., ultrapure or deionized water) [20,27,41].”
From Comparative evaluation of PFAS-selective adsorbents in hard-to-treat residual waste streams (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
This mechanism aligns with previous studies on conventional resin regeneration, which reported similar interactions.
“This mechanism aligns with previous studies on conventional resin regeneration, which reported similar interactions. [20,52].”
From Comparative evaluation of PFAS-selective adsorbents in hard-to-treat residual waste streams (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
Inorganic cations such as Ca2+ and Na+ and organic compounds compete for adsorbent space and inhibit PFAS adsorption.
“Inorganic cations such as Ca 2 + and Na + and organic compounds compete for adsorbent space and have been shown to inhibit PFAS adsorption (Gagliano et al., 2020).”
From Review of emerging contaminants in green stormwater infrastructure: antibiotic resistance genes, microplastics, tire wear particles, PFAS, and temperature (2024) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
Long-chain PFAS adsorb to granular activated carbon at a greater rate than short-chain compounds.
“long-chain PFAS adsorb to granular activated carbon at a greater rate than short-chain compounds (Gagliano et al., 2020).”
From Review of emerging contaminants in green stormwater infrastructure: antibiotic resistance genes, microplastics, tire wear particles, PFAS, and temperature (2024) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
PFAS compound structural variability causes different PFAS species to have different levels of absorptivity, making this type of removal challenging for all PFAS species.
“PFAS compound structural variabilities cause different PFAS species to have different levels of absorptivity, making this type of removal challenging for all types of PFAS species.”
From Review of emerging contaminants in green stormwater infrastructure: antibiotic resistance genes, microplastics, tire wear particles, PFAS, and temperature (2024) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
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A Comprehensive Review of Novel Adsorbents for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Water
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- Authors
- Gagliano, E., Sgroi, M., Falciglia, P. P., Vagliasindi, F. G. A., & Roccaro, P.
- Affiliations
- University of Catania (IT)
- Corresponding author
- Roccaro, Paolo
- Venue
- Water Research
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-03
- Volume
- 171
- Pages
- 115381
- ISSN
- 0043-1354 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2995462441
- Cited by
- 1,249
- References
- 91
- Citations by year
- 2026: 245 · 2025: 317 · 2024: 238 · 2023: 184 · 2022: 143 · 2021: 95 · 2020: 27
- FWCI
- 5.58
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Water Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Università Politecnica delle Marche (Università Politecnica delle Marche) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- CINECA IRIS Institutial Research Information System (University of Genoa) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Università di Catania
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Adsorption and biosorption for pollutant removal
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Environmental remediation with nanomaterials
- Keywords
- per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, PFAS removal, adsorption, short-chain PFAS, long-chain PFAS, perfluorooctanoic acid, PFOS, organic matter, adsorbent regeneration, anion exchange resin, adsorption capacity, breakthrough, water treatment, wastewater treatment
- MeSH terms
- Adsorption, Fluorocarbons, Humans, Water, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Ecosystem
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