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Removal of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from water by adsorption: Role of PFAS chain length, effect of organic matter and challenges in adsorbent regeneration
Open accessAbstract
Poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a wide group of environmentally persistent organic compounds of industrial origin, which are of great concern due to their harmful impact on human health and ecosystems. Amongst long-chain PFAS, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) are the most detected in the aquatic environment, even though their use has been limited by recent regulations. Recently, more attention has been posed on the short-chain compounds, due to their use as an alternative to long-chain ones, and to their high mobility in the water bodies. Therefore, short-chain PFAS have been increasingly detected in the environmental compartments. The main process investigated and implemented for PFAS removal is adsorption. However, to date, most adsorption studies have focused on synthetic water. The main objective of this article is to provide a critical review of the recent peer-reviewed studies on the removal of long- and short-chain PFAS by adsorption. Specific objectives are to review 1) the performance of different adsorbents for both long- and short-chain PFAS, 2) the effect of organic matter, and 3) the adsorbent regeneration techniques. Strong anion-exchange resins seem to better remove both long- and short-chain PFAS. However, the adsorption capacity of short-chain PFAS is lower than that observed for long-chain PFAS. Therefore, short-chain PFAS removal is more challenging. Furthermore, the effect of organic matter on PFAS adsorption in water or wastewater under real environmental conditions is overlooked. In most studies high PFAS levels have been often investigated without organic matter presence. The rapid breakthrough of PFAS is also a limiting factor and the regeneration of PFAS exhausted adsorbents is very challenging and needs more research.
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“Additionally, the hydrophobic and lipophobic nature of PFAS can be primarily attributed to the low polarizability of fluorine atoms, combined with the presence of a stable terminal functional group attached to the fluoroalkyl chain (Gagliano et al., 2020; Meegoda et al., 2020).”
From Estimation of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) half-lives in human studies: a systematic review and meta-analysis (2024) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“At the same time, the salting-out effects promotes PFAS sorption and passive retention within the outer root tissues [82].”
From Influence of root morphology and salinity on PFAS uptake by ten Australian wetland plant species (2026) · cites this paper as [82]
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“Inorganic cations such as Ca 2 + and Na + and organic compounds compete for adsorbent space and have been shown to inhibit PFAS adsorption (Gagliano et al., 2020).”
From Review of emerging contaminants in green stormwater infrastructure: antibiotic resistance genes, microplastics, tire wear particles, PFAS, and temperature (2024) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“long-chain PFAS adsorb to granular activated carbon at a greater rate than short-chain compounds (Gagliano et al., 2020).”
From Review of emerging contaminants in green stormwater infrastructure: antibiotic resistance genes, microplastics, tire wear particles, PFAS, and temperature (2024) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“In addition, adsorption and oxidation-reduction reactions are primary removal mechanisms for PFAS and some microplastics and tire wear compounds, (Douna and Yousefi, 2023; Gagliano et al., 2020; Huang et al., 2023; Padervand et al., 2020; Silvani et al., 2019).”
From Review of emerging contaminants in green stormwater infrastructure: antibiotic resistance genes, microplastics, tire wear particles, PFAS, and temperature (2024) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
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“Anion exchange resins, while not commonplace in DWTPs [31], are more effective compared to activated carbon in removing both long-and short-chain PFAS from water [16]; in this configuration, GAC filtration may be replaced by anion exchange resins.”
From A Mini-Review of Full-Scale Drinking Water Treatment Plants for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Removal: Possible Solutions and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [16]
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“It is necessary to note that adsorption/filtration unit applying either activated carbon or anion exchange resins requires appropriate regeneration of spent materials (i.e., PFAS-exhausted materials), which is a major drawback [16].”
From A Mini-Review of Full-Scale Drinking Water Treatment Plants for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Removal: Possible Solutions and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [16]
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“In addition, previous studies showed that PFAS concentrations in wastewater from intensive industry were higher than 1 μ g L -1 (Vo et al., 2020; Gagliano et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2013a, 2013b; Rotander et al., 2015).”
From Occurrence of per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances in wastewater treatment plants in Northern Italy (2023) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
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“The effects of structure and chain length on PFAS removal mechanisms were reviewed; however, the studies were not focused on PFAS distribution in the global aquatic environment (Ateia et al., 2019; Buck et al., 2011; Gagliano et al., 2020; F. Li et al., 2020; Schulz et al., 2020; Yang et al., 2020).”
From Per and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) as a contaminant of emerging concern in surface water: A transboundary review of their occurrences and toxicity effects (2021) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
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In the citing paper
“PFAS compound structural variabilities cause different PFAS species to have different levels of absorptivity, making this type of removal challenging for all types of PFAS species.”
From Review of emerging contaminants in green stormwater infrastructure: antibiotic resistance genes, microplastics, tire wear particles, PFAS, and temperature (2024) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
In the citing paper
“Consequently, complex water matrices can limit PFAS removal [18–21].”
From Comparative evaluation of PFAS-selective adsorbents in hard-to-treat residual waste streams (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“Complex water matrices can inhibit PFAS adsorption due to adsorbent characteristics and competition for sorption sites [19,20,29,30].”
From Comparative evaluation of PFAS-selective adsorbents in hard-to-treat residual waste streams (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“Interactions from competing constituents restrict PFAS access to available binding sites on GAC or IX resins.”
From Comparative evaluation of PFAS-selective adsorbents in hard-to-treat residual waste streams (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“Our approach in using complex residual streams contrasts with previous work, where PFAS adsorption is most typically evaluated in simulated or ideal matrices (e.g., ultrapure or deionized water) [20,27,41].”
From Comparative evaluation of PFAS-selective adsorbents in hard-to-treat residual waste streams (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“This mechanism aligns with previous studies on conventional resin regeneration, which reported similar interactions. [20,52].”
From Comparative evaluation of PFAS-selective adsorbents in hard-to-treat residual waste streams (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
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BackgroundPFAS: Ecological Implications, Remedial Actions and Ethical Considerations
Awolesi, O., Oni, P., Oshinowo, A. Y., Olubusoye, B. S., Owusu, F., Sunday, S. P., Osobamiro, T. M., Ongwech, A., Awolesi, O., & Arwenyo, B. (2023) · Journal of Agricultural Chemistry and Environment · doi:10.4236/jacen.2023.123023 · Cited by 6
Ion Exchange Process for Removal of Microconstituents From Water and Wastewater
Shahid, M. K., Dayarathne, N., Mainali, B., Lim, J. W., & Choi, Y. (2023) · doi:10.1002/9781119825289.ch13 · Cited by 5
Gray, E. L., Potteiger, S. E., Brannon, T. D., Norton, S. B., Cho, J., & Annable, M. D. (2025) · Journal of Contaminant Hydrology · doi:10.1016/j.jconhyd.2025.104550 · Cited by 4
Rapid PFAS removal from water with floating polymer assisted by air bubbles
Tighe, M., Guthrie, J. D., Ford, H. O., Stockmaster, K., Aderotoye, O., Jayakody, N. K., Klug, C. A., & Thum, M. D. (2025) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2025.144313 · Cited by 4
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“For many decades, they have been used in a range of formulations as surfactant intermediates (e.g., firefighting foams, aircraft hydraulic fluids), waterproofing treatments for textiles (e.g., clothing, carpets), and household products (e.g., paper and non-stick coatings for cookware) [2].”
Restrepo-Osorio, R. A., & Ο'Shea, K. Ε. (2025) · Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances · doi:10.1016/j.hazadv.2025.100904 · Cited by 4
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Doria-Manzur, A., Gray, E. P., Streets, S. S., & Guelfo, J. L. (2025) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2025.124674 · Cited by 5
Krishnankutty, A. K., Yasi, H. S. A., Wada, O. Z., AlMomani, F. A., & Mahmoud, K. A. (2025) · Environmental Science Water Research & Technology · doi:10.1039/d5ew00570a · Cited by 6
Hamza, M., Elsayed, I., Schueneman, G. T., & Hassan, E. B. (2025) · ACS ES&T Water · doi:10.1021/acsestwater.5c00881 · Cited by 5
Wang, B., Li, Y., Zheng, J., Fan, W., Wang, Y., Ma, F., Chen, M., & Dong, Z. (2025) · ACS Chemical Health & Safety · doi:10.1021/acs.chas.5c00166 · Cited by 4
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Brown, C. A., Swenson, J. T., Cho, Y., Pritchard, J. C., Milstead, R. P., Remucal, C. K., & Luthy, R. G. (2025) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.5c08255 · Cited by 5
Regenerable Graphene Nanoplatelet Adsorbents for Rapid and Trace-Level PFAS Removal from Water
Pervez, M. N., Jiang, T., Kumar, I. A., Kumaran, Y., Zhang, Y., Zhang, W., Efstathiadis, H., Feldblyum, J. I., Yigit, M. V., Venkatesan, A. K., et al. (2026) · ACS Omega · doi:10.1021/acsomega.5c08997 · Cited by 4
Bioaccumulation of PFOS Isomers in Transporter Proteins
James, D., Paddayuman, J. Z., Cristobal, J. R., Loganathan, N., Atilla‐Gokcumen, G. E., Aga, D. S., & Wilson, A. K. (2026) · Chemical Research in Toxicology · doi:10.1021/acs.chemrestox.5c00432 · Cited by 5
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Yan, L., Reid, E., Chen, Z., He, J., & Chen, Y. (2026) · ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces · doi:10.1021/acsami.5c13467 · Cited by 5
Jiang, S., Liu, Z., Jia, R., Liu, B., He, G., Du, Z., & Wang, Y. (2026) · Journal of Water Process Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.jwpe.2026.109510 · Cited by 4
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“A considerable amount of research has been conducted on the role of electrostatic and non-electrostatic (van der Waals and hydrophobic) interactions during PFAA adsorption – desorption by AER as reviewed in Gagliano et al. (2020) and Boyer, Fang, et al. (2021).”
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Toxic-Free Environment: Forever Chemicals Removal from Water and Wastewater
Jaradat, N. A. A., & Ardalı, Y. (2024) · Environmental Toxicology and Ecology · doi:10.59838/etoxec.1538643 · Cited by 4
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Enhanced removal of short-chain perfluoroalkyl substance using aminated waste-derived sorbent
Kwak, Y., Oh, M., & Nam, C. (2025) · Journal of Water Process Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.jwpe.2025.107829 · Cited by 4
A novel high-oxygen-evolution anode boosts microbial electrolysis for perfluorooctanoic acid removal
Qin, L., Liang, L., Qi, Y., Li, Y., Yin, F., & Zhao, X. (2025) · Desalination and Water Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.dwt.2025.101291 · Cited by 4
Kasula, M., Ortbal, S. K., Kebede, M. M., Terry, L. G., & Esfahani, M. R. (2025) · ACS ES&T Water · doi:10.1021/acsestwater.4c01032 · Cited by 4
Repurposing bauxite residue (a waste material) as an adsorbent for removing PFAS from water
Pang, J., Qiu, H., Berggren, S., Tanvar, H., Mishra, B., & Arlos, M. J. (2025) · Environmental Science Advances · doi:10.1039/d5va00101c · Cited by 4
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Soil washing for removal of per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances from investigation‐derived waste
Miceli, J. M., Varghese, J. R., Holsen, T. M., & Crimi, M. L. (2023) · Remediation Journal · doi:10.1002/rem.21771 · Cited by 4
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Lajayer, B. A., Sethi, D., Singh, S. I., Abdoli, S., Shu, W., & Price, G. W. (2025) · Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology · doi:10.1007/s44169-025-00095-3 · Cited by 6
“The adsorption mechanisms used for PFAS removal primarily involve transferring PFAS from the liquid phase (e.g., water) to the solid phase (e.g., an adsorbent material), rather than breaking down or degrading the PFAS molecules (Gagliano et al. 2020).”
InfluentialYan, S., Murtadha, B., Foster, G. D., & Ghosh, U. (2023) · Chemical Engineering Journal · doi:10.1016/j.cej.2023.146734 · Cited by 5
Regeneration, recycling, and disposal of spent biochars
Mpeta, M., Wenga, T., Marondedze, A. K., & Sadondo, P. (2025) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-99889-5.00020-7 · Cited by 3
Metadata
- Authors
- Gagliano, E., Sgroi, M., Falciglia, P. P., Vagliasindi, F. G. A., & Roccaro, P.
- Affiliations
- University of Catania (IT)
- Corresponding author
- Roccaro, Paolo
- Venue
- Water Research
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-03
- Volume
- 171
- Pages
- 115381
- ISSN
- 0043-1354 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2995462441
- Cited by
- 1,249
- References
- 91
- Citations by year
- 2026: 245 · 2025: 317 · 2024: 238 · 2023: 184 · 2022: 143 · 2021: 95 · 2020: 27
- FWCI
- 5.58
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Water Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Università Politecnica delle Marche (Università Politecnica delle Marche) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- CINECA IRIS Institutial Research Information System (University of Genoa) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Università di Catania
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Adsorption and biosorption for pollutant removal
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Environmental remediation with nanomaterials
- Keywords
- per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, PFAS removal, adsorption, short-chain PFAS, long-chain PFAS, perfluorooctanoic acid, PFOS, organic matter, adsorbent regeneration, anion exchange resin, adsorption capacity, breakthrough, water treatment, wastewater treatment
- MeSH terms
- Adsorption, Fluorocarbons, Humans, Water, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Ecosystem
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