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Removal of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from water by adsorption: Role of PFAS chain length, effect of organic matter and challenges in adsorbent regeneration
Open accessAbstract
Poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a wide group of environmentally persistent organic compounds of industrial origin, which are of great concern due to their harmful impact on human health and ecosystems. Amongst long-chain PFAS, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) are the most detected in the aquatic environment, even though their use has been limited by recent regulations. Recently, more attention has been posed on the short-chain compounds, due to their use as an alternative to long-chain ones, and to their high mobility in the water bodies. Therefore, short-chain PFAS have been increasingly detected in the environmental compartments. The main process investigated and implemented for PFAS removal is adsorption. However, to date, most adsorption studies have focused on synthetic water. The main objective of this article is to provide a critical review of the recent peer-reviewed studies on the removal of long- and short-chain PFAS by adsorption. Specific objectives are to review 1) the performance of different adsorbents for both long- and short-chain PFAS, 2) the effect of organic matter, and 3) the adsorbent regeneration techniques. Strong anion-exchange resins seem to better remove both long- and short-chain PFAS. However, the adsorption capacity of short-chain PFAS is lower than that observed for long-chain PFAS. Therefore, short-chain PFAS removal is more challenging. Furthermore, the effect of organic matter on PFAS adsorption in water or wastewater under real environmental conditions is overlooked. In most studies high PFAS levels have been often investigated without organic matter presence. The rapid breakthrough of PFAS is also a limiting factor and the regeneration of PFAS exhausted adsorbents is very challenging and needs more research.
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“Additionally, the hydrophobic and lipophobic nature of PFAS can be primarily attributed to the low polarizability of fluorine atoms, combined with the presence of a stable terminal functional group attached to the fluoroalkyl chain (Gagliano et al., 2020; Meegoda et al., 2020).”
From Estimation of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) half-lives in human studies: a systematic review and meta-analysis (2024) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“At the same time, the salting-out effects promotes PFAS sorption and passive retention within the outer root tissues [82].”
From Influence of root morphology and salinity on PFAS uptake by ten Australian wetland plant species (2026) · cites this paper as [82]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Inorganic cations such as Ca 2 + and Na + and organic compounds compete for adsorbent space and have been shown to inhibit PFAS adsorption (Gagliano et al., 2020).”
From Review of emerging contaminants in green stormwater infrastructure: antibiotic resistance genes, microplastics, tire wear particles, PFAS, and temperature (2024) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“long-chain PFAS adsorb to granular activated carbon at a greater rate than short-chain compounds (Gagliano et al., 2020).”
From Review of emerging contaminants in green stormwater infrastructure: antibiotic resistance genes, microplastics, tire wear particles, PFAS, and temperature (2024) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“In addition, adsorption and oxidation-reduction reactions are primary removal mechanisms for PFAS and some microplastics and tire wear compounds, (Douna and Yousefi, 2023; Gagliano et al., 2020; Huang et al., 2023; Padervand et al., 2020; Silvani et al., 2019).”
From Review of emerging contaminants in green stormwater infrastructure: antibiotic resistance genes, microplastics, tire wear particles, PFAS, and temperature (2024) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
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In the citing paper
“Anion exchange resins, while not commonplace in DWTPs [31], are more effective compared to activated carbon in removing both long-and short-chain PFAS from water [16]; in this configuration, GAC filtration may be replaced by anion exchange resins.”
From A Mini-Review of Full-Scale Drinking Water Treatment Plants for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Removal: Possible Solutions and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [16]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“It is necessary to note that adsorption/filtration unit applying either activated carbon or anion exchange resins requires appropriate regeneration of spent materials (i.e., PFAS-exhausted materials), which is a major drawback [16].”
From A Mini-Review of Full-Scale Drinking Water Treatment Plants for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Removal: Possible Solutions and Future Directions (2025) · cites this paper as [16]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“In addition, previous studies showed that PFAS concentrations in wastewater from intensive industry were higher than 1 μ g L -1 (Vo et al., 2020; Gagliano et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2013a, 2013b; Rotander et al., 2015).”
From Occurrence of per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances in wastewater treatment plants in Northern Italy (2023) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The effects of structure and chain length on PFAS removal mechanisms were reviewed; however, the studies were not focused on PFAS distribution in the global aquatic environment (Ateia et al., 2019; Buck et al., 2011; Gagliano et al., 2020; F. Li et al., 2020; Schulz et al., 2020; Yang et al., 2020).”
From Per and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) as a contaminant of emerging concern in surface water: A transboundary review of their occurrences and toxicity effects (2021) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
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In the citing paper
“PFAS compound structural variabilities cause different PFAS species to have different levels of absorptivity, making this type of removal challenging for all types of PFAS species.”
From Review of emerging contaminants in green stormwater infrastructure: antibiotic resistance genes, microplastics, tire wear particles, PFAS, and temperature (2024) · cites this paper as Gagliano et al., 2020
In the citing paper
“Consequently, complex water matrices can limit PFAS removal [18–21].”
From Comparative evaluation of PFAS-selective adsorbents in hard-to-treat residual waste streams (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“Complex water matrices can inhibit PFAS adsorption due to adsorbent characteristics and competition for sorption sites [19,20,29,30].”
From Comparative evaluation of PFAS-selective adsorbents in hard-to-treat residual waste streams (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“Interactions from competing constituents restrict PFAS access to available binding sites on GAC or IX resins.”
From Comparative evaluation of PFAS-selective adsorbents in hard-to-treat residual waste streams (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“Our approach in using complex residual streams contrasts with previous work, where PFAS adsorption is most typically evaluated in simulated or ideal matrices (e.g., ultrapure or deionized water) [20,27,41].”
From Comparative evaluation of PFAS-selective adsorbents in hard-to-treat residual waste streams (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“This mechanism aligns with previous studies on conventional resin regeneration, which reported similar interactions. [20,52].”
From Comparative evaluation of PFAS-selective adsorbents in hard-to-treat residual waste streams (2025) · cites this paper as [20]
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MethodRemoval of organic pollutants in shale gas fracturing flowback and produced water: A review
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Chain-length dependent ultrasonic degradation of perfluoroalkyl substances
Shende, T., Andaluri, G., & Suri, R. (2023) · Chemical Engineering Journal Advances · doi:10.1016/j.ceja.2023.100509 · Cited by 43
“…activated carbon rather quickly, and both processes (filtration and AOPs) produce a residual waste that needs removal or further treatment [8,16 – 18 , In this work, water treatment using ultrasonic cavitation was studied to determine its efficacy in breaking down PFAS of varying chain lengths…”
BackgroundHe, A., Lü, Y., Chen, F., Li, F., Lv, K., Cao, H., Sun, Y., Liang, Y., Li, J., Zhao, L., et al. (2022) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154988 · Cited by 44
Mojiri, A., Nazari, M., Ansari, H. K., Vakili, M., Farraji, H., & Kasmuri, N. (2023) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms24032446 · Cited by 43
“Introduction Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a group of anthropogenic compounds that are of rising concern worldwide because of their significant impacts on the environment and on human health [1].”
BackgroundFang, J., Xu, K., Liu, A., Xue, Y., Tie, L., Deng, Z., Qiu, R., & Zhang, W. (2024) · Environmental Science Nano · doi:10.1039/d3en00987d · Cited by 43
Ellis, A., Boyer, T. H., & Strathmann, T. J. (2024) · Separation and Purification Technology · doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2024.129789 · Cited by 45
Cáñez, T. T., Guo, B., McIntosh, J. C., & Brusseau, M. L. (2021) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147906 · Cited by 48
“PFAS with shorter chain lengths (C4-C6) have the tendency to be more mobile in soil and groundwater than PFAS with longer chains (C7+) like PFOS (e.g., Weber et al., 2017; Dauchy et al., 2019; Brusseau et al., 2020; Gagliano et al., 2020).”
BackgroundDong, Q., Min, X., Zhao, Y., & Wang, Y. (2023) · Journal of Colloid and Interface Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcis.2023.10.112 · Cited by 46
Fang, F., Chen, S., Shi, K., Xu, S., Yi, Z., Lei, L., Zhuang, L., Wan, H., & Xu, Z. P. (2024) · Separation and Purification Technology · doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2024.127379 · Cited by 43
Dharshan, S. S., Ramamurthy, K., Priya, P. S., Sudhakaran, G., Guru, A., & Arockiaraj, J. (2024) · Environmental Monitoring and Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10661-024-13292-9 · Cited by 47
“However, concerns about DBP release, like NDMA, limit full-scale AE resin application (Gagliano et al., 2020).”
Hedbom, D., Gaiser, P., Günther, T., Cheung, O. Y. H., Strømme, M., Åhlén, M., & Sjödin, M. (2024) · Journal of Materials Chemistry A · doi:10.1039/d4ta06167e · Cited by 42
Luo, Y., Fu, K., Wang, D., & Luo, J. (2025) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.4c14726 · Cited by 40
Lee, D., Jun, B.-M., Park, J., Jang, M., Lee, S., Snyder, S. A., Park, C. M., & Yoon, Y. (2025) · Nano Convergence · doi:10.1186/s40580-025-00521-1 · Cited by 45
“This unfavorable impact may be attributed to various mechanisms [54]: (1) NOM (e.g., humic acid) may compete with anionic PFAS for ion-exchange sites on MOFs [55]; (2) hydrophobic organic compounds could interact with MOF surfaces via hydrophobic interactions and H-bonding; (3) organic…”
Gkika, D. A., & Kyzas, G. Z. (2025) · RSC Sustainability · doi:10.1039/d5su00802f · Cited by 46
Xie, R., Zhou, L., Smith, A. E., Almquist, C. B., Berberich, J. A., & Danielson, N. D. (2022) · Journal of Hazardous Materials · doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.128521 · Cited by 44
Chen, W., Liu, M., Ding, M., Zhang, L., & Dai, S. (2022) · Process Safety and Environmental Protection · doi:10.1016/j.psep.2022.11.036 · Cited by 40
Hatinoglu, D., Perreault, F., & Apul, O. G. (2022) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.160524 · Cited by 44
When aerobic granular sludge faces emerging contaminants: A review
Guo, T., Pan, K., Chen, Y., Tian, Y., Deng, J., & Li, J. (2023) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167792 · Cited by 43
Yin, Y., Fan, C., Cheng, L., & Shan, Y. (2024) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2024.118261 · Cited by 42
Zhang, Y., Kong, K., Wu, Q., Ma, T., Liang, J., & Wang, R. (2024) · ChemSusChem · doi:10.1002/cssc.202400069 · Cited by 43
Molé, R. A., de Velosa, A. C., Carey, G. R., Liu, X., Li, G., Fan, D., Danko, A. S., & Lowry, G. V. (2024) · Journal of Hazardous Materials · doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134746 · Cited by 42
Eid, S., Lemaoui, T., Darwish, A. S., Jaoudé, M. A., BANAT, F. A., Hasan, S. W., & AlNashef, I. M. (2024) · Chemical Engineering Journal · doi:10.1016/j.cej.2024.153668 · Cited by 41
Yan, Z., Sun, Y., Yan, J., Liu, R., Zhang, J., & Song, J. (2025) · Separation and Purification Technology · doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2025.132575 · Cited by 43
Cao, J., Feng, S., Dolatabad, A. A., Zhi, Y., Deng, B., Liu, C., Lyu, X., Christensen, C., Pignatello, J. J., Ni, P., et al. (2025) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2025.123758 · Cited by 42
Lai, T. T., Kuntz, D., & Wilson, A. K. (2022) · Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling · doi:10.1021/acs.jcim.2c00374 · Cited by 41
Güzel, B. (2025) · Water Air & Soil Pollution · doi:10.1007/s11270-025-08174-w · Cited by 43
“Gagliano et al. (2019) examined the efficacy of GAC in adsorbing PFAS from water, noting its effectiveness against well-known compounds like PFOA and PFOS.”
Hagstrom, A. L., Anastas, P. T., Boissevain, A. L., Borrel, A., Deziel, N. C., Fenton, S. E., Fields, C., Fortner, J. D., Franceschi-Hofmann, N., Frigon, R., et al. (2021) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146192 · Cited by 40
Araújo, R. G., Rodríguez-Hernández, J. A., González-González, R. B., Macías-Garbett, R., Martínez-Ruiz, M., Reyes-Pardo, H., Martínez, S. A. H., Parra-Arroyo, L., Melchor-Martínez, E. M., Sosa‐Hernández, J. E., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Environmental Science · doi:10.3389/fenvs.2022.864894 · Cited by 43
“However, there are other problems inherent to the removal of PFAS by the most advanced techniques, which are the influence of the water matrix and its frequent regeneration, and the removal of concentrates with a high content of PFAS (Gagliano et al., 2020).”
BackgroundInfluentialSilva, A. R., Duarte, M. S., Alves, M. M., & Pereira, L. J. R. (2022) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules27061895 · Cited by 42
“1 mg L−1 of PFAS, a higher concentration than that usually found in WWTP [9,29], the SMA was slightly affected by both PFOA and PFAS (Table 1).”
BackgroundInfluentialEnhanced removal of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances by crosslinked polyaniline polymers
He, J., Gomeniuc, A., Olshansky, Y., Hatton, J., Abrell, L. M., Field, J. A., Chorover, J., & Sierra‐Álvarez, R. (2022) · Chemical Engineering Journal · doi:10.1016/j.cej.2022.137246 · Cited by 39
Kebria, M. R. S., Bono, L., Salestan, S. K., Armirotti, A., Carzino, R., Athanassiou, A., & Fragouli, D. (2023) · Chemical Engineering Journal · doi:10.1016/j.cej.2023.143236 · Cited by 39
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Metadata
- Authors
- Gagliano, E., Sgroi, M., Falciglia, P. P., Vagliasindi, F. G. A., & Roccaro, P.
- Affiliations
- University of Catania (IT)
- Corresponding author
- Roccaro, Paolo
- Venue
- Water Research
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2020-03
- Volume
- 171
- Pages
- 115381
- ISSN
- 0043-1354 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2995462441
- Cited by
- 1,249
- References
- 91
- Citations by year
- 2026: 245 · 2025: 317 · 2024: 238 · 2023: 184 · 2022: 143 · 2021: 95 · 2020: 27
- FWCI
- 5.58
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Water Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Università Politecnica delle Marche (Università Politecnica delle Marche) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- CINECA IRIS Institutial Research Information System (University of Genoa) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Università di Catania
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Adsorption and biosorption for pollutant removal
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Environmental remediation with nanomaterials
- Keywords
- per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, PFAS removal, adsorption, short-chain PFAS, long-chain PFAS, perfluorooctanoic acid, PFOS, organic matter, adsorbent regeneration, anion exchange resin, adsorption capacity, breakthrough, water treatment, wastewater treatment
- MeSH terms
- Adsorption, Fluorocarbons, Humans, Water, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Ecosystem
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