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Mother knows best: effects of maternal modelling on the acquisition of fear and avoidance behaviour in toddlers
Abstract
The present study was conducted to investigate the influence of parental modelling on the acquisition of fear and avoidance towards novel, fear-relevant stimuli in a sample of 30 toddlers. The toddlers were shown a rubber snake and spider, which were alternately paired with either negative or positive facial expressions by their mothers. Both stimuli were presented again after a 1- and a 10-min delay, while mothers maintained a neutral expression. The children showed greater fear expressions and avoidance of the stimuli following negative reactions from their mothers. This was true for both genders although the degree of modelled avoidance was greater in girls than in boys. The strong observational learning results are consistent with views that modelling constitutes a mechanism by which fear may be acquired early in life.
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“In contrast, positive maternal modelling decreases children ' s fear beliefs (Broeren et al., 2011; Egliston & Rapee, 2007; Gerull & Rapee, 2002; Kelly et al., 2010).”
From Specific Phobia in Young Children: Associations between the Origins of Fear and Clinical Expression of Phobia Symptoms. (2025) · cites this paper as Gerull & Rapee, 2002
In the citing paper
“Similar effects have been found with the modelling pathway, in which toddlers have demonstrated increased fear and avoidance when playing with a toy snake, after observing their mother modelling negative interactions with the toy (Gerull & Rapee, 2002).”
From Specific Phobia in Young Children: Associations between the Origins of Fear and Clinical Expression of Phobia Symptoms. (2025) · cites this paper as Gerull & Rapee, 2002
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“There is some evidence that parental expressed anxiety promotes the development of anxious or fearful cognitions, behaviors and symptoms (Askew and Field 2007; De Rosnay et al. 2006; Gerull and Rapee 2002; Grüner et al. 1999; Waters et al. 2012).”
Pediatric anxiety disorders: from neuroscience to evidence-based clinical practice
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“Overprotective parents may also model anxious responses (i.e., intolerance of uncertainty) that children acquire (Gerull & Rapee, 2002) as they learn that problems are threatening and unsolvable (Wood, McLeod, Sigman, Hwang, & Chu, 2003).”
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Kiel, E. J., Premo, J. E., & Buss, K. A. (2015) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-015-0038-3 · Cited by 37
“…it has been established that maternal modeling of negative reactions to both social and non-social novel stimuli, even when they are not specifically fear-relevant in nature, increases children’s fear and avoidance of these stimuli (Dubi et al. 2008; Gerull and Rapee 2002; Murray et al. 2008).”
Möller, E. L., Majdandžić, M., & Bögels, S. M. (2014) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12194 · Cited by 39
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“In line with our expectations, participants were more inclined to perform the CS task compared to the CS1 task, and they showed stronger avoidance tendencies in the SRC task with respect to the CS1 relative to the CS WWT, supporting earlier evidence.(27) However, the indirect reaction time task data (SRC) should be in…”
ResultAnxiety and Anxiety Disorders in Girls
Albano, A. M., & Krain, A. (2005) · Issues in Clinical Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/0-306-48674-1_3 · Cited by 35
The effect of disgust and fear modeling on children’s disgust and fear for animals.
Askew, C., Çakır, K., Põldsam, L., & Reynolds, G. (2014) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0037228 · Cited by 37
“…young infants (15–20 months of age) showed increased fear and avoidance of a toy snake and spider after their mothers indicated that they were scary and unpleasant (Gerull & Rapee, 2002), and this has also been observed for flower and mushroom stimuli (Dubi, Rapee, Emerton, & Schniering, 2008).”
BackgroundLebowitz, E. R., Shic, F., Campbell, D., MacLeod, J., & Silverman, W. K. (2015) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22333 · Cited by 33
“Gerull and Rapee[27] experimentally manipulated behavioral modeling and found that children who observed their mothers’ nonverbal expressions of fear in response to rubber snakes and spiders showed greater fear of the stimuli 10 min later.”
BackgroundThe effect of parental presence on the child’s perception and co-operation during dental treatment
Vasiliki, B., Konstantinos, A., Vassilis, K., Nikolaos, K., van Loveren, C., & Veerkamp, J. S. J. (2016) · European Archives of Paediatric Dentistry · doi:10.1007/s40368-016-0241-0 · Cited by 33
“…reasons for excluding the parents from the dental office during their child’s dental treatment include an increase of child’s DBMP, their disruptive behaviour during dental procedures and preventing parental projection of their own fear on their child (Fenlon et al. 1993; Gerull and Rapee 2002).”
BackgroundInfluentialAnxiety, Mood, and Substance Use Disorders in Parents of Children With Anxiety Disorders
Hughes, A. A., Furr, J. M., Sood, E., Barmish, A. J., & Kendall, P. C. (2009) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-009-0133-1 · Cited by 33
“Research suggests that parental modeling of catastrophic thinking and anxious avoidance are related to the etiology and maintenance of anxiety disorders in youth [54], and studies support the transmission of specific fears and avoidance through modeling [12, 55].”
BackgroundWhat Happens When Verbal Threat Information and Vicarious Learning Combine?
Askew, C., Kessock-Philip, H., & Field, A. P. (2008) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465808004402 · Cited by 33
“In terms of vicarious learning, toddlers show greater avoidance of novel toys towards which they have seen their mothers acting fearfully (Gerull and Rapee, 2002) and children’s fear cognitions and avoidance of novel animals can be affected by pictures of adults expressing fear (Askew and Field,…”
BackgroundSocial Anxiety in Children and Adolescents: Biological, Developmental, and Social Considerations
Detweiler, M. F., Comer, J. S., Crum, K. I., & Albano, A. M. (2014) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-394427-6.00010-8 · Cited by 40
Don't Think That Kids Aren't Noticing: Indirect Pathways to Children's Fear of COVID-19
Radanović, A., Micić, I., Pavlović, S., & Krstić, K. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.635952 · Cited by 32
Broeren, S., Lester, K. J., Muris, P., & Field, A. P. (2011) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2010.11.001 · Cited by 31
“Fortunately, recent studies have developed prospective paradigms to explore the role of indirect vicarious learning experiences for the development of childhood fear (Askew & Field, 2007; Gerull & Rapee, 2002).”
BackgroundInfluentialKan, J. M., Callaghan, B. L., & Richardson, R. (2016) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037/bne0000157 · Cited by 30
Reynolds, G., Field, A. P., & Askew, C. (2014) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0037225 · Cited by 30
“…2013; Askew & Field, 2007; Askew, Kessock-Philip, & Field, 2008; de Rosnay, Cooper, Tsigaras, & Murray, 2006; Dubi, Rapee, Emerton, & Schniering, 2008; Dunne & Askew, 2013; Egliston & Rapee, 2007; Gerull & Rapee, 2002) indicates that it leads to increased fear-related cognitions and avoidance.”
MethodChildhood attachment and behavioral inhibition: Predicting intolerance of uncertainty in adulthood
Zdebik, M. A., Moss, E., & Bureau, J. (2017) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579417001614 · Cited by 37
“Moreover, maternal anxiety may contribute to the development of child anxiety disorders through both genetics and modeling of anxious behaviors (Gerull & Rapee, 2002; Hudson & Rapee, 2004) and has been associated with higher levels of child insecure attachment, BI, and anxiety disorders (Hirshfeld,…”
BackgroundChild anxiety and parenting in England and Italy: the moderating role of maternal warmth
Raudino, A., Murray, L., Turner, C., Tsampala, E., Lis, A., Pascalis, L. D., & Cooper, P. (2013) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12105 · Cited by 30
Social and Emotional Learning with Families
Dinallo, A. (2016) · Journal of Education and Learning · doi:10.5539/jel.v5n4p147 · Cited by 33
“These aspects of the curriculum are important in good parenting (Sanders & Mazzucchelli, 2013) and in modeling emotional health (Gerull & Rapee, 2002).”
BackgroundMuris, P., Huijding, J., Mayer, B., Leemreis, W. H., Passchier, S., & Bouwmeester, S. (2009) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374410902976379 · Cited by 29
“Gerull and Rapee ( 2002 ) developed an interesting paradigm to study young children's fear and avoidance reactions to novel animals as a function of fear-relevant feedback provided by their mothers.”
BackgroundStimulus fear-relevance and the vicarious learning pathway to childhood fears.
Askew, C., Dunne, G., Özdil, Z., Reynolds, G., & Field, A. P. (2013) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0032714 · Cited by 31
Sex Differences in Response to an Observational Fear Conditioning Procedure
Kelly, M. M., & Forsyth, J. P. (2007) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2006.10.007 · Cited by 28
Apetroaia, A., Hill, C. E., & Creswell, C. (2015) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.08.059 · Cited by 23
“Parental expressed anxiety includes describing or encouraging children to view problems as catastrophic, irresolvable or dangerous (Wood et al., 2003), and behaving in a manner likely to alert children to threat in their environment (e.g., Gerull and Rapee, 2002).”
BackgroundSensory atypicalities in dyads of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and their parents
Glod, M., Riby, D. M., Honey, E. J., & Rodgers, J. (2016) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1680 · Cited by 35
“There is a strong evidence that fearful behaviours can be modelled by parents and in turn increase fear in children [De Rosnay, Cooper, Tsigaras, & Murray, 2006; Gerull & Rapee, 2002].”
BackgroundBanica, I., Sandre, A., & Weinberg, A. (2019) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2018.12.013 · Cited by 33
LoBue, V., Kim, E., & Delgado, M. R. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-17332-6_11 · Cited by 25
Garcia, K. M., Carlton, C. N., & Richey, J. A. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.614318 · Cited by 33
“For instance, parents with SAD have been found to attribute more negative features to the environment, such as labeling certain environments as highly threatening (54, 55), whichmay increase vulnerability to the child and promote avoidance (56).”
BackgroundMothers' facial expressions of pain and fear and infants' pain response during immunization
Horton, R. E., & Riddell, R. P. (2010) · Infant Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1002/imhj.20262 · Cited by 25
Hiller, R. M., Apetroaia, A., Clarke, K., Hughes, Z. D., Orchard, F., Parkinson, M., & Creswell, C. (2016) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2016.05.009 · Cited by 25
Fliek, L., Dibbets, P., Roelofs, J., & Muris, P. (2016) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-016-0655-2 · Cited by 25
“With regard to modeling, an exemplary study was conducted by Gerull and Rapee [12] who investigated the influence of fearful responses of mothers to an unknown stimulus on young children’s behavior.”
MethodRevisiting the Simulation of Smiles model: the what, when, and why of mimicking smiles
Niedenthal, P. M., Korb, S., Wood, A., & Rychlowska, M. (2016) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781107587595.004 · Cited by 24
Silvers, J., Callaghan, B., VanTieghem, M., Choy, T., O'Sullivan, K., & Tottenham, N. (2020) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.13056 · Cited by 22
“For example, there is strong clinical evidence to suggest that fears, anxieties and phobias run in families, and that this link is at least partially mediated by parents modeling fearful or anxious behavior (Gerull & Rapee, 2002; Kendler, 2001; Thapar & McGuffin, 1995).”
BackgroundBecker, K. D., & Ginsburg, G. S. (2011) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-011-0216-7 · Cited by 24
An ERP study of the interaction between verbal information and conditioning pathways to fear
Ugland, C. C. O., Dyson, B. J., & Field, A. P. (2012) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2012.02.003 · Cited by 23
Reynolds, G., Field, A. P., & Askew, C. (2016) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2016.1138410 · Cited by 22
“…well as demonstrating that compared to a control animal, children showed higher behavioral avoidance (e.g., Askew & Field, 2007; Dubi et al., 2008; Gerull & Rapee, 2002), heart rate, and attentional bias for fear-paired animals (Reynolds et al., 2014); (b) confirmed Dunne and Askew (2013)…”
BackgroundInhibition of vicariously learned fear in children using positive modeling and prior exposure.
Askew, C., Reynolds, G., Fielding-Smith, S. F., & Field, A. P. (2015) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000131 · Cited by 25
A study of parental presence/absence technique for child dental behaviour management
Boka, V., Arapostathis, K. N., Charitoudis, G., Veerkamp, J. S. J., van Loveren, C., & Kotsanos, N. (2017) · European Archives of Paediatric Dentistry · doi:10.1007/s40368-017-0313-9 · Cited by 23
Reynolds, G., Field, A. P., & Askew, C. (2015) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-015-0004-0 · Cited by 22
“2008, 2013; Askew and Field 2007; Dunne and Askew 2013), behavioral preferences and avoidance (e.g., Askew et al. 2013; Askew and Field 2007; De Rosnay et al. 2006; Dubi et al. 2008; Dunne and Askew 2013; Egliston and Rapee 2007; Gerull and Rapee 2002), heart rate and attentional bias (e.”
BackgroundAvoiding Treatment Failures in Specific Phobias
Alpers, G. W. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-0612-0_12 · Cited by 22
Muris, P., Mayer, B., Borth, M., & Vos, M. (2012) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2012.10.002 · Cited by 22
The role of learning in the etiology of child and adolescent fear and anxiety
Field, A. P., & Purkis, H. M. (2011) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511994920.012 · Cited by 22
Brooker, R. J., Neiderhiser, J. M., Ganiban, J. M., Leve, L. D., Shaw, D. S., & Reiss, D. (2014) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s095457941300103x · Cited by 20
“For example, parents serve as working examples of emotional responding to distressing events (Gerull & Rapee, 2002).”
BackgroundSocial Anxiety in Children and Adolescents
Detweiler, M. F., Comer, J. S., & Albano, A. M. (2010) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-375096-9.00009-2 · Cited by 24
Prevention of Childhood Anxiety and Depression
Barrett, P. M., & Turner, C. M. (2004) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470753385.ch18 · Cited by 21
Anxiety Disorders in Children and Adolescents
Castellanos, D., & Hunter, T. (2010) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e556312011-001 · Cited by 21
Maternal depressive symptoms, rumination, and child emotion regulation
Wu, Q., Feng, X., Gerhardt, M., & Wang, L. (2019) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-019-01430-5 · Cited by 20
The Fundamental Role of Early Environments to Developing an Emotionally Healthy Brain
Tottenham, N. (2017) · Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1177/2372732217745098 · Cited by 19
“This type of learning is rapid and robust during childhood (Gerull & Rapee, 2002; Muris et al., 1996).”
BackgroundAnxiety and Anxiety Disorders in Young People
Koydemir, S., & Essau, C. A. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-815310-9.00005-8 · Cited by 21
Ranney, R. M., Behar, E., & Zinsser, K. M. (2021) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-021-01931-5 · Cited by 16
How the Emotional Environment Shapes the Emotional Life of the Child
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“In contrast to earlier findings in a non-pain context [55], changes in pain-related beliefs did not result in CS+ avoidance, which was measured implicitly using an approach-avoidance task.”
ResultAnxious behaviour in a demonstrator affects observational learning
Selbing, I., & Olsson, A. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-45613-1 · Cited by 20
Vicarious learning and reduction of fear in children via adult and child models.
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Using a novel paradigm to examine observational fear‐learning across development
Skversky‐Blocq, Y., Pine, D. S., & Shechner, T. (2021) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.23152 · Cited by 19
Fearfulness Affects Quail Maternal Care and Subsequent Offspring Development
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Vicarious learning of children’s social-anxiety-related fear beliefs and emotional Stroop bias.
Askew, C., Hagel, A., & Morgan, J. (2015) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0000083 · Cited by 18
“…Çakır, Põldsam, & Reynolds, 2014; Askew, Dunne, Özdil, Reynolds, & Field, 2013; Askew & Field, 2007; Askew, Kessock-Philip, & Field, 2008; Dubi, Rapee, Emerton, & Schniering, 2008; Dunne & Askew, 2013; Gerull & Rapee, 2002), as well as attentional bias for animals (Reynolds, Field, & Askew, 2014).”
Aktar, E., Majdandžić, M., de Vente, W., & Bögels, S. M. (2017) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2017.1371029 · Cited by 21
“For example, some of these studies paired parents ’ facial expressions with novel objects or animals in computerized experiments (Dubi et al., 2008; Gerull & Rapee, 2002).”
BackgroundPrecocial bird mothers shape sex differences in the behavior of their chicks
Pittet, F., Houdelier, C., & Lumineau, S. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Zoology Part A Ecological Genetics and Physiology · doi:10.1002/jez.1858 · Cited by 18
The Relationship Between Parental Anxiety and Child-Related Cognition: An Experimental Approach
Gallagher, B., & Cartwright‐Hatton, S. (2008) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-008-9194-x · Cited by 17
“The modelling of fearful behaviour by parents has also been linked to increased fear in children (de Rosnay et al. 2006; Gerull and Rapee 2002 ) and preliminary evidence suggests that verbal information from parents is also important in the development of anxiety (Muris et al. 2001).”
BackgroundEmotional Reasoning and Parent-Based Reasoning in Normal Children
Morren, M., Muris, P., & Kindt, M. (2004) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1023/b:chud.0000039317.50547.e3 · Cited by 18
Freud was Right… About the Origins of Abnormal Behavior
Muris, P. (2006) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-005-9006-9 · Cited by 17
“In a study by Gerull and Rapee (2002) , toddlers were shown a rubber snake and spider, which were alternately paired with either a negative or a positive facial expression by their mother.”
BackgroundA Brain‐To‐Brain Mechanism for Social Transmission of Threat Learning
Pan, Y., Vinding, M. C., Zhang, L., Lundqvist, D., & Olsson, A. (2023) · Advanced Science · doi:10.1002/advs.202304037 · Cited by 17
Bunaciu, L., Leen‐Feldner, E. W., Blumenthal, H., Knapp, A. A., Badour, C. L., & Feldner, M. T. (2014) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2014.02.011 · Cited by 16
“Previous studies required parents to specifically model fear-eliciting emotions by using facial expressions or vocalizations in the context of novel tasks (Burstein & Ginsburg, 2010), external stimuli (Gerull & Rapee, 2002), or strange persons (de Rosnay et al., 2006).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialBilodeau-Houle, A., Bouchard, V., Morand‐Beaulieu, S., Herringa, R. J., Milad, M. R., & Marin, M. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.579514 · Cited by 16
Watch and Learn: Vicarious Threat Learning across Human Development
Skversky‐Blocq, Y., Haaker, J., & Shechner, T. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11101345 · Cited by 21
“Female toddlers showed more avoidance behavior than male toddlers after watching their mothers’ fear/disgust expressions [21].”
BackgroundInfluentialMaternal predictors of anxiety risk in young males with fragile X
Tonnsen, B. L., Cornish, K. M., Wheeler, A., & Roberts, J. E. (2014) · American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B Neuropsychiatric Genetics · doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.32244 · Cited by 17
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Zheng, L., Chai, H., Chen, W., Yu, R., He, W., Jiang, Z., Yu, S., Li, H., & Wang, W. (2011) · Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences · doi:10.1111/j.1440-1819.2011.02285.x · Cited by 17
“For the 17-month-old toddlers, mothers could promote anxious and avoidant reactions to novel stimuli through the contingent delivery of negative facial expressions such as fear.(6) Highly negatively or positively expressed emotion of the mothers even fostered insecure attachment of normal children,(7) and of children…”
BackgroundMöller, E. L., Majdandžić, M., Vriends, N., & Bögels, S. M. (2013) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-013-9787-1 · Cited by 15
“Social referencing showed to play a role in the acquisition of fear already early in life. for example, Gerull and Rapee (2002) demonstrated that in 15–20-monthold infants fear expressions towards and avoidance of two stimuli (a rubber snake and spider) increased after negative reactions from their…”
BackgroundNimphy, C. A., Venetikidi, M., Elzinga, B. M., van der Does, W. A. J., & Aktar, E. (2023) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-023-00448-1 · Cited by 20
“Infant modeling of parents’ non-verbal fear expressions has been studied in so-called social referencing paradigms (Gerull & Rapee, 2002; Murray et al., 2008).”
BackgroundMurdock, K. W., Pittman, L. D., & Fagundes, C. P. (2017) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-017-0910-6 · Cited by 14
“Parents are thought to influence child outcomes not only through modeling emotional behavior (Gerull and Rapee 2002), but through the parenting behaviors associated with parental affect (Dette-Hagenmeyer and Reichle 2014; Silberg et al.”
BackgroundEnvironmental Factors in the Development and Maintenance of Anxiety Disorders
Lawrence, P. J., Waite, P., & Creswell, C. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-813004-9.00006-2 · Cited by 21
Blount, T. H., & Epkins, C. C. (2008) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-008-9195-9 · Cited by 14
Cued fear conditioning in humans using immersive Virtual Reality
Quezada-Scholz, V. E., Laborda, M. A., Martín, C. S., Míguez, G., Alfaro, F., Mallea, J., & Díaz, F. R. (2022) · Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2022.101803 · Cited by 15
Bilodeau-Houle, A., Morand‐Beaulieu, S., Bouchard, V., & Marin, M. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105553 · Cited by 18
Entomophobia and Arachnophobia Among School-Age Children: A Psychological Approach
Shahriari-Namadi, M., Tabatabaei, H. R., & Soltani, A. (2018) · Shiraz E-Medical Journal · doi:10.5812/semj.64824 · Cited by 15
Morren, M., Muris, P., Kindt, M., Schouten, E. G. W., & van den Hout, M. (2008) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-007-0091-4 · Cited by 14
“they observed their mother display a negative affective response [37, 38].”
BackgroundParental involvement in robot-mediated intervention: a systematic review
Piccolo, A., Domenico, C. D., Cara, M. D., Settimo, C., Corallo, F., Leonardi, S., Impallomeni, C., Tripodi, E., Quartarone, A., & Cucinotta, F. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1355901 · Cited by 12
Ma, Q., Huang, Y., & Wang, L. (2013) · The Scientific World JOURNAL · doi:10.1155/2013/652542 · Cited by 12
Reynolds, G., & Askew, C. (2018) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0000511 · Cited by 16
“In line with this, previous research with monkeys (e.g., Cook & Mineka, 1990) and infants (e.g., Gerull & Rapee, 2002) have generated vicarious learning by presenting participants with a model reacting fearfully to a particular stimulus and this seems a more likely route to the development of fear…”
BackgroundResultEmpathy does not amplify vicarious threat learning
Williams, A. L., & Conway, C. (2020) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2020.103577 · Cited by 13
Essau, C. A., Ishikawa, S., & Sasagawa, S. (2010) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-010-9404-5 · Cited by 12
Epidemiology and Natural Course
Beesdo‐Baum, K., & Knappe, S. (2014) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118775349.ch3 · Cited by 12
Stimulus fear relevance and the speed, magnitude, and robustness of vicariously learned fear
Dunne, G., Reynolds, G., & Askew, C. (2017) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2017.05.002 · Cited by 11
Parents' and Children's Mathematics Anxiety
Batchelor, S., Gilmore, C. K., & Inglis, M. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-802218-4.00012-1 · Cited by 11
Coss, R. G., & Charles, E. P. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.763436 · Cited by 12
“Research on parental modeling has shown that the wariness of toddlers toward novel objects can be influenced by observing adult facial expressions (Gerull and Rapee, 2002).”
BackgroundOrme, K., Challacombe, F. L., & Roxborough, A. (2022) · The Cognitive Behaviour Therapist · doi:10.1017/s1754470x22000101 · Cited by 10
“This can be an area of concern for parents who are worried about the impact on children who may pick up on and start to copy their behaviour independently (Gerull and Rapee, 2002).”
BackgroundValidation of the Family Fear of Deportation Scale for youth
Cox, R. B., Lin, H., Cartagena, M. L., Greder, K. A., Larzelere, R., Washburn, I., & Sahbaz, S. (2022) · Family Relations · doi:10.1111/fare.12719 · Cited by 8
“Parents transmit their own anxious information processing style to their children through modeling verbal and nonverbal anxious behaviors, fear responses, and ineffective coping strategies (Creswell et al., 2010; Gerull & Rapee, 2002).”
BackgroundFamily and Parent Predictors of Anxiety Disorder Onset in Offspring of Anxious Parents
Ginsburg, G. S., Schleider, J. L., Tein, J. Y., & Drake, K. L. (2017) · Child & Youth Care Forum · doi:10.1007/s10566-017-9432-z · Cited by 10
“Consistent with social learning theory, parents’ modeling of anxiety and their own expressions of distress are theorized to increase children’s anxious cognitions and behaviors and ineffective coping (Burstein and Ginsburg 2010; de Rosnay et al. 2006; Gerull and Rapee 2002; Schleider et al. 2014).”
Skversky‐Blocq, Y., Shmuel, S., Cohen, O. M., & Shechner, T. (2022) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2022.11.004 · Cited by 8
Anxiety in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Jennett, H. K., Vasa, R. A., & Hagopian, L. P. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-6599-7_16 · Cited by 9
Age and emotional salience of stimuli alter the expression of visual recognition memory
Brown, A., Robinson, A. J., Herbert, J. S., & Pascalis, O. (2006) · Current psychology letters · doi:10.4000/cpl.1165 · Cited by 9
Working collaboratively with parents and carers in cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT)
Creswell, C., Cartwright‐Hatton, S., & Rodriguez, N. (2013) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139344456.011 · Cited by 8
Development and validation of the Modeling of Parental Anxiety Questionnaire
Elfström, S., & Åhlén, J. (2021) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2021.102515 · Cited by 8
Fear Learning in Infancy: An Evolutionary Developmental Perspective
Rakison, D. H. (2022) · Evolutionary psychology · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-76000-7_14 · Cited by 8
Metadata
- Authors
- Gerull, F. C., & Rapee, R. M.
- Affiliations
- Macquarie University (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Rapee, Ronald M
- ORCID
- Rapee, Ronald M
- Venue
- Behaviour Research and Therapy
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2002-03
- Volume
- 40
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 279-287
- ISSN
- 0005-7967 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1987916514
- Cited by
- 352
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 31 · 2013: 22 · 2012: 16
- FWCI
- 10.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Behaviour Research and Therapy (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- fear acquisition, avoidance behavior, toddlers, observational learning, fear conditioning, gender differences
- MeSH terms
- Anxiety, Avoidance Learning, Psychology, Child, Facial Expression, Fear, Female, Humans, Infant, Male, Mothers
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