The Scientific Legacy of Little Hans and Little Albert: Future Directions for Research on Specific Phobias in Youth
Abstract
We review issues associated with the phenomenology, etiology, assessment, and treatment of specific phobias in children and adolescents and provide suggestions for future research and clinical practice. In doing so, we highlight the early case studies of Little Hans and Little Albert and the advances that have been made following the publication of these seminal cases. In recent years, we have witnessed a deeper understanding of the etiology of specific phobias and developed a rich array of evidence-based assessments and treatments with which to address specific phobias in youth. Although much has been accomplished in this area of inquiry, we also note that much remains to be done before we can advance more fully our understanding, assessment, and treatment of specific phobias in youth. It will be important for future work to build more firmly on these developments and to better determine the moderators and mediators of change with our evidence-based treatments and to more vigorously pursue their dissemination in real-word settings.
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20-50% of youth with SPs remain unresponsive to treatment.
“Additionally, whilst there are well established treatment options available for children with SP across a variety of populations, such as the one session treatment (OST; Davis et al., 2019; Muskett et al., 2020), 20 -50% of youth with SPs remain unresponsive to treatment (Ollendick & Muris, 2015).”
From Specific Phobia in Young Children: Associations between the Origins of Fear and Clinical Expression of Phobia Symptoms. (2025) · cites this paper as Ollendick & Muris, 2015
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Broeren, S., Lester, K. J., Muris, P., & Field, A. P. (2011) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2010.11.001 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationEpidemiology of Fears and Specific Phobia in Adolescence
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Self-citationOllendick, T. H., Lewis, K., Cowart, M. J. W., & Davis, T. E. (2012) · Behavior Modification · doi:10.1177/0145445512448191 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citationStimulus fear-relevance and the vicarious learning pathway to childhood fears.
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One-Session Treatment : Principles and Procedures with Adults
Öst, L.-G. (2012) · Autism and child psychopathology series · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3253-1_4 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
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Self-citationField, A. P., & Price-Evans, K. (2009) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.01.020 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Treatment of childhood anxiety disorders: what is the place for antidepressants?
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Self-citationSocial Anxiety Disorder in Children and Adolescents
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Self-citationSpider fear and covariation bias in children and adolescents
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Self-citationChanges in facial electromyographic activity in spider-phobic girls after psychotherapy
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Social Anxiety in Children and Adolescents
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The Wiley-Blackwell handbook of the treatment of childhood and adolescent anxiety
Essau, C. A., & Ollendick, T. H. (2013) · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Self-citationAdvances Toward Evidence-Based Practice: Where to From Here?
Ollendick, T. H. (2013) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2013.08.004 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Self-citationPhobias in Children and Adolescents: A Review
Ollendick, T. H., King, N. J., & Muris, P. (2004) · doi:10.1002/0470014113.ch5 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citationOne-Session Treatment: Principles and Procedures with Children and Adolescents
Davis, T. E., Ollendick, T., Reuther, E., & Munson, M. (2012) · Autism and child psychopathology series · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3253-1_5 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationAssessment and Treatment of Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders
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Clinical Behavior Therapy with Children
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Self-citationConditioned emotional reactions: Beyond Watson and Rayner's Little Albert
Ollendick, T. H., Sherman, T. M., Muris, P., & King, N. J. (2012) · Research Publications (Maastricht University) · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationChanging Maladaptive Behaviors, Part 1
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‘It's the sight not the bite’: A model and reinterpretation of visually-based developmental fears
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Ryan, S. M., Strege, M. V., Oar, E. L., & Ollendick, T. H. (2016) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2016.07.011 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“…research groups from various parts of the world (i.e., Australia, Austria, Sweden, the Netherlands, and the United States), across childhood and adolescence (6e18 years of age), and for a diverse range of specific phobias, OST is now considered a wellestablished treatment (Ollendick & Muris, 2015).”
Self-citationOar, E. L., Farrell, L. J., & Ollendick, T. H. (2015) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-015-0189-3 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Genetic influences, aberrant brain processes, temperament, parenting, learning experiences, evolutionary preparedness, cognitive biases, and avoidance are all factors thought to be involved in the development and maintenance of a specific phobia (Cowart and Ollendick 2013; Ollendick and Muris 2015).”
BackgroundSelf-citationAutism Spectrum Disorder and Specific Phobia: the Role of Sensory Sensitivity: Brief Review
Muskett, A., Radtke, S., White, S., & Ollendick, T. (2019) · Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s40489-019-00159-w · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Self-citationA 25-Year Review of Nighttime Fears in Children: Past, Present, and Future
Lewis, K. M., Ferreira, R. E. R., Freitag, G. F., Coffman, M. F., & Ollendick, T. H. (2021) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-021-00354-4 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Self-citationHave Phobias, Will Travel: Addressing One Barrier to the Delivery of an Evidence-Based Treatment
Ollendick, T. H., Ryan, S. M., Capriola-Hall, N. N., Austin, K. E., & Fraire, M. G. (2017) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2017.11.003 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Self-citationBerge, K. G., Agdal, M. L., Vika, M., & Skeie, M. S. (2017) · Acta Odontologica Scandinavica · doi:10.1080/00016357.2017.1297849 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Oar, E. L., Farrell, L. J., Waters, A. M., & Ollendick, T. H. (2016) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2016.01.004 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“It has been suggested that targeting the unique characteristics of the phobia subtypes may lead to improved outcomes (Ollendick & Muris, 2015).”
BackgroundHarm beliefs and coping expectancies in youth with specific phobias
Ollendick, T. H., Öst, L., Ryan, S. M., Capriola-Hall, N. N., & Reuterskiöld, L. (2017) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2017.01.007 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Self-citationThe mediating role of changes in harm beliefs and coping efficacy in youth with specific phobias
Ollendick, T. H., Ryan, S. M., Capriola-Hall, N. N., Reuterskiöld, L., & Öst, L. (2017) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2017.10.007 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citationThe genetic and environmental structure of fear and anxiety in juvenile twins
Sawyers, C. K., Ollendick, T. H., Brotman, M. A., Pine, D. S., Leibenluft, E., Carney, D. M., Roberson‐Nay, R., & Hettema, J. M. (2019) · American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B Neuropsychiatric Genetics · doi:10.1002/ajmg.b.32714 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“The FSSC-R (Ollendick, 1983) is a widely used questionnaire for asses- sing common fears in children (Gullone, 1999; Myers & Winters, 2002; Ollendick & Muris, 2015).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationCognitive Behavioral Therapy in a One-Session Treatment for a Preschooler With Specific Phobias
Kershaw, H., Farrell, L. J., Donovan, C. L., & Ollendick, T. H. (2017) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/0889-8391.31.1.7 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“, in press) is a modified OST approach (Davis, Ollendick, & Ost, 2012; Öst & Ollendick, 2001), whereby play therapy approaches are used for the first hour of the intensive treatment to engage the child at an appropriate developmental level and socialize the child to the goals of treatment (i.e., to face her fears) in…”
InfluentialSelf-citationOllendick, T. H. (2016) · Cognitive and Behavioral Practice · doi:10.1016/j.cbpra.2016.06.005 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationExposure therapy for specific phobias in children and adolescents
Mobach, L., Oar, E. L., & Hudson, J. L. (2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-815915-6.00008-1 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Oar, E. L., Farrell, L. J., & Ollendick, T. H. (2019) · Pediatric Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-813004-9.00007-4 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationParental Influences and Child Internalizing Outcomes across Multiple Generations
Booker, J., Capriola-Hall, N. N., & Ollendick, T. (2018) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-018-1067-7 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationAlcan, E., Gessner, J., Stangier, G., Benke, C., Busin, J., Christiansen, H., & Melzig, C. A. (2025) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-025-00517-7 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“…through three fear learning pathways: vicarious fear, negative information, and reinforcement or punishment (for a review, see Fisak & Grills-Taquechel, 2007; Ollendick & Muris, 2015; Ollendick & King, 1991; Muris & Field, 2010; Lebowitz et al., 2016; Aktar et al., 2017; Aktar & Pérez-Edgar, 2024).”
Krause, L., & Askew, C. (2021) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2021.103992 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Klein, A. M., Hagen, A., Rahemenia, J., de Gier, E., Rapee, R. M., Nauta, M. H., de Bruin, E. I., Biesters, J., van Rijswijk, L., Bexkens, A., et al. (2024) · Contemporary Clinical Trials Communications · doi:10.1016/j.conctc.2024.101346 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Cognitive behavioral treatments have been shown to be efficacious in treating children with specific phobias [7,8].”
BackgroundSelf-citationFernández‐Martínez, I., & Muris, P. (2024) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-024-01712-3 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationda Rocha, M., Ollendick, T. H., Alckmin-Carvalho, F., Campos, L. B., Asbahr, F. R., & Ferreira, R. E. R. (2021) · Trends in Psychiatry and Psychotherapy · doi:10.47626/2237-6089-2020-0170 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationAji, M., Datyner, A., Gougeon, J., Paravastu, N., Champ, S. L., Lim, C. Y. S., Teng, A. Y., & Hudson, J. L. (2026) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-025-01011-2 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Hipolito, G., & Johnson, M. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-74985-9_10 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Muris, P. (2017) · Autism and child psychopathology series · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-71210-9_12 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
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“Additionally, whilst there are well established treatment options available for children with SP across a variety of populations, such as the one session treatment (OST; Davis et al., 2019; Muskett et al., 2020), 20 – 50% of youth with SPs remain unresponsive to treatment (Ollendick & Muris, 2015).”
Pincus, D. B., & Hardway, C. (2019) · Innovations in CBT for Childhood Anxiety, OCD, and PTSD · doi:10.1017/9781108235655.007 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Džon Broadus Votson (1878-1958) and 'Little Albert': Love as a conditioned emotional reaction
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Association between fears and behavior/ emotional problems in toddlers and preschoolers
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Whiteside, S. P. H., Ollendick, T. H., & Biggs, B. K. (2020) · doi:10.1093/med-psych/9780190862992.003.0001
Self-citationSpecific Phobia: Etiological, Cognitive, and Neuroscientific Aspects
Azab, M. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-19362-0_4
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- Authors
- Ollendick, T. H., & Muris, P.
- Affiliations
- Griffith University (AU)
- Stellenbosch University (ZA)
- Corresponding author
- Ollendick, Thomas H.
- Venue
- Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2015-04-11
- Volume
- 44
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 689-706
- ISSN
- 1537-4416 (ISSN-L)
- 1537-4424
- OpenAlex
- W2030110975
- Cited by
- 35
- References
- 162
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 1 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 1
- FWCI
- 6.54
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Publications (Maastricht University) (publishedVersion)
- Griffith Research Online (submittedVersion)
- Research Publications (Maastricht University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Therapy and Development
- Keywords
- specific phobia, children, adolescents, Little Hans, phobia assessment, phobia treatment, evidence-based treatment, dissemination of evidence-based treatment
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Child, Child, Preschool, Forecasting, Humans, Phobic Disorders, Biomedical Research
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