Spacing and Testing Effects

Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes

Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60422-3 · Cited by 7,216

Human memory : theory and practice

Baddeley, A. (1990) · Cited by 3,045

Cognitive Skills and Their Acquisition

Anderson, J. R. (2013) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203728178 · Cited by 2,929

Test-Enhanced Learning: Taking Memory Tests Improves Long-Term Retention

Roediger, H. L., & Karpicke, J. D. (2006) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01693.x · Cited by 2,867

Semantic priming and retrieval from lexical memory: Roles of inhibitionless spreading activation and limited-capacity attention.

Neely, J. H. (1977) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.106.3.226 · Cited by 2,826

The Atomic Components of Thought

Anderson, J. R., & Lebiere, C. J. (2014) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315805696 · Cited by 2,181

When and where do we apply what we learn?: A taxonomy for far transfer

Barnett, S. M., & Ceci, S. J. (2002) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.612 · Cited by 2,076

The power of testing memory: Basic research and implications for educational practice

Roediger, H. L., & Karpicke, J. D. (2006) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00012.x · Cited by 2,037

Semantic priming effects in visual word recognition : A selective review of current findings and theories

NEELY, J. G. (1991) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,897

Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis.

Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.354 · Cited by 1,888 · cited 3×

Emphasizing temporal and semantic associations from encoding affects free recall at retrievalPreprint

Hong, B., Pace-Tonna, C., Barense, M. D., & Mack, M. L. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/q4dpg · Cited by 4

Optimizing Radiological Education: The Role of Learning Spacing via Test sets in Enhancing Diagnostic Proficiency in Breast Screening Readers

Trieu, P. D., Awwad, D. A., Barron, M. L., & Lewis, S. J. (2024) · Academic Radiology · doi:10.1016/j.acra.2024.06.039 · Cited by 3

Spaced repetition and other key factors influencing medical school entrance exam success: insights from a French survey

Burel, J., Trost, O., Demeyere, M., Rives, N., Estour, F., Ladner, J., Crampon, F., Deneuve, S., & Maquet, C. (2025) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-025-07605-w · Cited by 3

Does retrieval practice depend on semantic cues? Assessing the fuzzy trace account of the testing effect

van Eersel, G. G., Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L., Bouwmeester, S., Tabbers, H. K., & Rikers, R. M. J. P. (2017) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2017.1300156 · Cited by 3

Quizzes benefit freshman and sophomore students more than junior and senior students in introductory psychology classes with noncumulative exams.

Michaels, J. L. (2017) · Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology · doi:10.1037/stl0000098 · Cited by 3

Enhancing Adaptive Learning through Strategic Scheduling of Passive and Active Learning Modes.

Mettler, E. W., Massey, C. M., Burke, T., Garrigan, P., & Kellman, P. J. (2018) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 3

Using “Make & Take Quizzes” to Improve Exam Performance and Engage Students in Effective Study Strategies

Gallagher, K. M. (2020) · Teaching of Psychology · doi:10.1177/0098628320957991 · Cited by 3

Teaching and Testing in Hasidic Schools: Skills, Content, and Knowledge Automaticity as a Model for Other Day School Contexts

Krakowski, M. (2020) · Journal of Jewish Education · doi:10.1080/15244113.2020.1841588 · Cited by 2

Optimizing learning and motor performance in highly trained youth football players: the role of time interval between synchronous and asynchronous sessions in a blended training model

Hawani, A., Tannoubi, A., Gasmi, M., Ursu, V. E., & Geantă, V. A. (2026) · Frontiers in Sports and Active Living · doi:10.3389/fspor.2025.1736195 · Cited by 2

A Longitudinal Thematic Analysis of Technology Integration in Marketing

Jayawardene, V., Ewing, M. T., Niemann‐Struweg, I., & Cunningham, N. (2026) · Marketing Education Review · doi:10.1080/10528008.2026.2630712 · Cited by 4

Spacing effects in learning and memory

Carpenter, S. K., & Pan, S. C. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-15754-7.00020-1 · Cited by 4

Testing theories of skill learning using a very large sample of online game players

Stafford, T., & Dewar, M. (2013) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 2

Item repetition and retrieval processes in cued recall: Analysis of recall-latency distributions

Jang, Y., & Lee, H. (2019) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-019-00902-y · Cited by 2

The Synergy of Passive and Active Learning Modes in Adaptive Perceptual Learning.

Mettler, E. W., Phillips, A., Massey, C. M., Burke, T., Garrigan, P., & Kellman, P. J. (2019) · PubMed · Cited by 2

The testing effect in immediate recognition: tests of the episodic context account

Chang, Y., Delaney, P. F., & Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L. (2019) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2019.1677672 · Cited by 2

Spacing Effect-based Educational Interventional Strategy to Improve Asthma Knowledge among Biomedical Students in a Private Malaysian University

Thamby, S. A., Wen, T. S., Ping, N. Y., Carine, L., Balasubramanian, G. P., & Paruchuri, S. (2021) · Indian Journal of Pharmacy Practice · doi:10.5530/ijopp.14.2.24 · Cited by 2

Combating effort avoidance in computer adaptive practicing: Does a problem-skipping restriction promote learning?

Savi, A. O., van Klaveren, C., & Cornelisz, I. (2023) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2023.104908 · Cited by 2

Learnin' 'bout my generation: The effects of generation on encoding, recall, and metamemory

Burnett, A. N. (2013) · doi:10.5072/prism/26739 · Cited by 2

Untitled work

(2015) · Digital Commons - University of South Florida (University of South Florida) · Cited by 2

Distributed Practice and Retrieval Practice in Primary School Vocabulary Learning

Camp, G., Goossens, N. A. M. C., Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L., Tabbers, H. K., & Zwaan, R. A. (2014) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e528942014-237 · Cited by 2

Statistical inference for categorization models and presentation order

Mezzadri, G. (2020) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/f15c2ceez57e3z4cf6zba6aza54b10b0de9b · Cited by 3

Temporal associations supporting repetitions in free recall

Lohnas, L. J. (2025) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-025-02673-x · Cited by 2

Üben im Mathematikunterricht – Konsolidierende Übungsformate und ihre lerntheoretische und empirische Fundierung

Leuders, T., & Loibl, K. (2025) · Unterrichtswissenschaft · doi:10.1007/s42010-025-00230-y · Cited by 2

Students’ Perceptions of Effective Math Learning Strategies

Hartwig, M. K., & Rohrer, D. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15081047 · Cited by 3

Do large language models learn like humans: Interleaved and spaced practice in morphological learning

Xiong, Y., & Wu, S. (2025) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.105518 · Cited by 2

Spaced learning and melodic memory

Katz, J. J., & Wiseheart, M. (2025) · Psychology of Music · doi:10.1177/03057356251401906 · Cited by 1

Augmenting Hand–Eye Coordination with Electrical MuscleStimulation: Effects on Visuomotor Integration andLong-Term Skill Retention

Zhou, S., & Segawa, N. (2026) · Augmented Humans International Conference (AHs) · doi:10.1145/3795011.3795021 · Cited by 1

Artificial grammar learning is facilitated by distributed practice: Evidence from a letter reordering task

Schiff, R., Sasson, A., Green, H., & Kahta, S. (2021) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-021-01048-z · Cited by 1

Enhancing learning at work. How to combine theoretical and data-driven approaches, and multiple levels of data?

Kalakoski, V., Ratilainen, H., & Drupsteen, L. (2015) · TNO Repository · Cited by 1

Is perceiving another’s error detrimental to learning from corrective feedback?

Iwaki, N., Tomisawa, M., Suzumori, R., Kikuchi, A., Takahashi, I., Tanaka, S., & Yamamoto, S. (2020) · Cogent Psychology · doi:10.1080/23311908.2020.1717052 · Cited by 1

Implications of Cognitive Theories for Optimizing Higher Education Learning

Özçelik, E. (2020) · Advances in higher education and professional development book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-4036-7.ch003 · Cited by 1

The Interaction of Learning Speed and Memory Interference: When Fast is Bad

Sandvik, Ø. (2013) · NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives · Cited by 1

Investigating the effect of spaced versus massed practice on vocabulary retention in the EFL classroom

Alfotais, A. (2019) · Open Access at Essex (University of Essex) · Cited by 1

Retrieval-based argument mapping promotes learning transfer

Liu, Q. (2020) · Summit (Simon Fraser University) · Cited by 1

Does the testing effect impact favorability judgments

Chang, Y. (2013) · NC Digital Online Collection of Knowledge and Scholarship (The University of North Carolina at Greensboro)

A Test of the Efficiency of Study and a Study on the Efficacy of Tests

de Jonge, M. (2014) · EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam)

A Study Of The Effects On Retention Of Different Time Intervals Between Opportunities To Learn

Clark, B. (2014) · UC Research Repository (University of Canterbury) · doi:10.26021/5021

Narrative Review Evidence for Intensive Aphasia Therapy: Consideration of Theories From Neuroscience and Cognitive Psychology

Dignam, J. K., Rodriguez, A. D., & Copland, D. A. (2016)

Pan and Rickard (2018) Transfer of test-enhanced learning meta-analysis (preprint)Preprint

Pan, S. C. (2018) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/4qpyn · Cited by 1

Effectiveness of Retrieval Practice on Prospective Memory Deficits in Mild to Moderate Tramatic Brain Injury patients

Selvasrinivasan, M. (2017)

Spacing by retention interval interactions in retroactive effects of memory: the role of detecting and remembering change

Smith, S. T. (2021) · NC Digital Online Collection of Knowledge and Scholarship (The University of North Carolina at Greensboro)

Cumulative assessment: Does it improve students’ knowledge acquisition and retention?

Cecílio‐Fernandes, D., Nagtegaal, M., Noordzij, G., & Tio, R. A. (2018) · Scientia Medica · doi:10.15448/1980-6108.2018.4

Is situational interest a metacognitive risk? An examination of contextual factors in classroom settings

Syal, S., & Nietfeld, J. L. (2022) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2022.102109 · Cited by 1

Pan, Dunlosky, Xu, & Ouwehand (2024) Emerging and Future Directions in Test-Enhanced Learning ResearchPreprint

Pan, S. C., Dunlosky, J. T., Xu, K. M., & Ouwehand, K. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/gs5yr

Promoting Interleaved and Spaced Practice in Anatomy and Physiology Students

Brennan, K., & Vecchio, J. D. (2024) · CourseSource · doi:10.24918/cs.2024.7

Usage of Spaced Repetition Flashcards to Improve Educational Outcomes in Microbiology

Ogunjobi, F., Alexander, S. M., & Cramer, L. (2024) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.70994

Impact of modality and mode of questioning and testing on memory reports

Riggenbach, M. R., Gronlund, S. D., & Zoladz, P. R. (2024) · Frontiers in Cognition · doi:10.3389/fcogn.2024.1349511 · Cited by 1

Dynamic memory searches: Selective output interference for the memory of facts.Preprint

Criss, A. H., & Aue, W. R. (2018) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints)

Revisiting Hebb: The Mechanisms of Repetition Learning

Musfeld, P., & Oberauer, K. (2026) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916251408052 · Cited by 1

Huh, what did they say again? The influence of task interruption position and workload on auditory-verbal memory performance

Hensen, S., Koch, I., Jin, A., & Hirsch, P. (2026) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-026-00709-x

Clustering makes you (im)perfect: aggregating information for evaluationsPreprint

Leshkowitz, M., Preiner, I. K., & Hassin, R. R. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.6393082

Optimisation de l’apprentissage par récupération en mémoire pour promouvoir la rétention à long terme de nouvelles connaissances

Latimier, A. (2019) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/d005cf32z3feez45d4z8dd6z5047380d3ff1

An Approach for Ushering Logistic Regression Early in Introductory Analytics Courses

Kunene, N., & Toskin, K. (2022) · Information Systems Education Journal · doi:10.62273/hpex4324

The influence of vocabulary difficulty and retrieval interval on the retrieval practice effect in English learning

Qu, K., Wang, X., Zhou, J., & Zhang, Y. (2026) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-026-09632-2

Increasing Word Learning Efficiency in Deaf and Hard of Hearing Children Through Retrieval Practice

McDaniel, J. (2026) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2026_jslhr-25-01039

Think-Aloud Modelling for Clinical Reasoning in Undergraduate Dental Education: A Pilot Study

Menon, R. K., Ghanem, T. A., & Hajjo, H. M. (2026) · Dentistry Journal · doi:10.3390/dj14100634

Toward a Gamification From Below: Balancing Engagement and Disengagement

Lissillour, O., & Deterding, S. (2026) · Annual Symposium on Computer-Human Interaction in Play · doi:10.1145/3800965.3834661

Picking the Right Dose: The Challenges of Applying Spaced Testing to Education

Larsen, D. P. (2014) · Journal of Graduate Medical Education · doi:10.4300/jgme-d-14-00170.1 · Cited by 8

The Critical Importance of Retrieval—and Spacing—for Learning

Soderstrom, N. C., Kerr, T., & Bjork, R. A. (2015) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797615617778 · Cited by 53

Distributed rereading can hurt the spacing effect in text memory

Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L., Rikers, R. M. J. P., & Özsoy, B. (2007) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1388 · Cited by 37

Understanding the underlying mechanism of the spacing effect in verbal learning: a case for encoding variability and study-phase retrieval

Maddox, G. B. (2016) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2016.1181637 · Cited by 54

Passing the test: Improving Learning Gains by Balancing Spacing and Testing Effects

van Rijn, H., van Maanen, L., van Woudenberg, M., Hoses, A., Peebles, D., & Cooper, R. (2009) · University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) · Cited by 42