Gender differences in predictors of initiation, retention, and completion in an HMO-based substance abuse treatment program
Abstract
We studied gender differences in treatment process indicators among 293 HMO members recommended for substance abuse treatment. Treatment initiation, completion, and time spent in treatment did not differ by gender, but factors predicting these outcomes differed markedly. Initiation was predicted in women by alcohol diagnoses; in men, by being employed or married. Failure to initiate treatment was predicted in women by mental health diagnoses; in men, by less education. Treatment completion was predicted in women by higher income and legal/agency referral; in men, by older age. Failure to complete was predicted in women by more dependence diagnoses and higher Addiction Severity Index Employment scores; in men, by worse psychiatric status, receiving Medicaid, and motivation for entering treatment. More time spent in treatment was predicted, in women, by alcohol or opiate diagnoses and legal/agency referral; in men, by fewer mental health diagnoses, higher education, domestic violence victim status, and prior 12-step attendance. Clinical implications of results are discussed.
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Women with more mental health problems are less likely to complete SUD treatment.
“Prior research has found that women with more mental health problems are less likely to complete SUD treatment (Green et al., 2002)”
From Influences of victimization and comorbid conditions on latency to illicit drug use among adolescents and young adults (2020) · cites this paper as Green et al., 2002
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ResultGender Differences in Alcohol Treatment: An Analysis of Outcome From the COMBINE Study
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“On the basis of some past research (Green et al., 2002; Brady and Ashley, 2005; Green, 2006), we hypothesized that these relationships would differ for men relative to women.”
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“That said, existing studies suggest that treatment initiation, completion , and time spent in treatment do not differ by gender (Green et al, 2002).”
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BackgroundRacial and Ethnic Differences in Substance Abuse Treatment Initiation and Engagement
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“These findings are consistent with other studies that have found that older substance users are more likely to complete treatment (Green, Polen, Dickinson, Lynch, & Bennett, 2002; Nellori & Ernst, 2004), and those with employment are more likely to complete their treatment (Brewer et al., 1998; Green et al., 2002).”
ResultGender Similarities and Differences in the Treatment, Relapse, and Recovery Cycle
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BackgroundResultInfluentialDetermining socio‐demographic predictors of treatment dropout: results in a therapeutic community
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“A number of other studies have also explored gender differences in the prediction of treatment retention or dropout (Green et al., 2002; Mertens & Weisner, 2000).”
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Gender Differences in Outcomes in an HMO—Based Substance Abuse Treatment Program
Green, C., Polen, M., Lynch, F. L., Dickinson, D. M., & Bennett, M. D. (2004) · Journal of Addictive Diseases · doi:10.1300/j069v23n02_04 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Self-citationPredictors of treatment retention in postpartum women prescribed buprenorphine during pregnancy
O’Connor, A. B., Uhler, B., O’Brien, L. M., & Knuppel, K. (2017) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2017.12.001 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Gender differences in barriers to alcohol and other drug treatment in Cape Town, South Africa
MYERS, B. J., Louw, J., & Pasche, S. C. (2011) · African Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.4314/ajpsy.v14i2.7 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Rash, C. J., Olmstead, T. A., & Petry, N. (2009) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.05.018 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Tiburcio, M., Lara, M. A., Martínez-Vélez, N. A., Fernández-Torres, M., & Abrego, A. A. (2018) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.1080/10826084.2018.1467452 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Gender Differences and Pregnant Women in a Methadone Maintenance Treatment (MMT) Clinic
Peles, E., & Adelson, M. (2006) · Journal of Addictive Diseases · doi:10.1300/j069v25n02_06 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Racial and Gender Differences in Utilization of Medicaid Substance Abuse Services Among Adolescents
Heflinger, C. A., Chatman, J., & Saunders, R. C. (2006) · Psychiatric Services · doi:10.1176/ps.2006.57.4.504 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
A comparative review of best practice guidelines for the diversion of drug related offenders
Bull, M. (2005) · International Journal of Drug Policy · doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2005.05.007 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Ogrodniczuk, J. S., Piper, W. E., & Joyce, A. S. (2006) · Psychiatry · doi:10.1521/psyc.2006.69.3.249 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Basu, D., Ghosh, A., Sarkar, S., Patra, B. N., Subodh, B. N., & Mattoo, S. K. (2017) · The Indian Journal of Medical Research · doi:10.4103/ijmr.ijmr_1309_15 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Grundmann, J., Lotzin, A., Sehner, S., Verthein, U., Hiller, P., Hiersemann, R., Lincoln, T. M., Hillemacher, T., Schneider, B., Drießen, M., et al. (2020) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2020.1817604 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“Conversely, higher financial resources (Green et al., 2002; Mertens & Weisner, 2000), fewer children (Kelly et al., 2001) and more social support (Graff et al., 2009; Mertens & Weisner, 2000) have been found to be related to higher retention rates or more treatment attendance.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSubstance Abuse Treatment for Women Offenders: A Research Review
Adams, S. M., Leukefeld, C. G., & Peden, A. R. (2008) · Journal of Addictions Nursing · doi:10.1080/10884600802111648 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Lerch, J. A., Walters, S. T., Tang, L. L., & Taxman, F. S. (2017) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2017.07.002 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Mittal, M. L., Vashishtha, D., Sun, S., Jain, S., Cuevas-Mota, J., Garfein, R. S., Strathdee, S. A., & Werb, D. (2017) · Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy · doi:10.1186/s13011-017-0126-1 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Andersson, H. W., Lauvsnes, A. D. F., & Nordfjærn, T. (2020) · European Addiction Research · doi:10.1159/000512156 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Faller, S., Peuker, A. C., Sordi, A. O., Stolf, A. R., Formigoni, M. L. O. D. S., Cruz, M. S., Brasiliano, S., Pechansky, F., & Kessler, F. H. P. (2014) · Trends in Psychiatry and Psychotherapy · doi:10.1590/2237-6089-2014-0040 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Satre, D. D., Campbell, C. I., Gordon, N. P., & Weisner, C. M. (2010) · The International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine · doi:10.2190/pm.40.1.e · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“One prior study found that among women recommended for SUD treatment, co-occurring psychiatric diagnoses were associated with reduced odds of initiating treatment [27].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialClient Predictors of Treatment Retention and Completion in a Program for Homeless Veterans
Justus, A. N., Burling, T. A., & Weingardt, K. R. (2006) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.1080/10826080500411353 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“This is consistent with the existing literature showing that gender differences are evident in the factors that predict treatment retention (Chou et al., 1998; Green et al., 2003).”
ResultSubstance‐dependent women becoming mothers: breaking the cycle of adverse childhood experiences
Wiig, E. M., Haugland, B. S. M., Halsa, A., & Myhra, S. M. (2014) · Child & Family Social Work · doi:10.1111/cfs.12190 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Women with SUDs tend to be isolated and lack a supportive social network (Green et al. 2002; Soederstroem 2012).”
BackgroundOrganizational determinants of outpatient substance abuse treatment duration in women
Campbell, C. I., Alexander, J. A., & Lemak, C. H. (2008) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2008.09.012 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Meier, P. S., & Barrowclough, C. (2009) · Drugs Education Prevention and Policy · doi:10.1080/09687630701741030 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Dowling, N. (2009) · Addiction Research & Theory · doi:10.1080/16066350802346193 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“…evidence of gender differences in the factors affecting treatment attrition and outcomes in the treatment of alcohol and substance dependence (e.g., Green et al. 2002; Compton et al. 2003), it cannot be assumed that findings relevant to male pathological gambling can be generalized as equally…”
BackgroundRash, C. J., & Petry, N. (2015) · Experimental and clinical psychopharmacology · doi:10.1037/pha0000035 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“While the bulk of studies find no differences in treatment retention (e.g., Devito, Babuscio, Nich, Ball, & Carroll, 2014; Green et al., 2002; Mertens & Weisner, 2000; Wong, Badger, Sigmon, & Higgins, 2002), others suggest that women have lower retention (Arfken, Klein, di Menza, & Schuster, 2001),…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialTreatment Compliance in Different Types of Group Psychotherapy: Exploring the Effect of Age
Ogrodniczuk, J. S., Piper, W. E., & Joyce, A. S. (2006) · Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/01.nmd.0000207366.49820.85 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“Several authors have argued that a patient’s failure to comply with a full course of treatment significantly compromises the treatment’s effectiveness (Edlund et al., 2002; Green et al., 2002).”
BackgroundSpohr, S. A., Livingston, M. D., Taxman, F. S., & Walters, S. T. (2018) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.09.036 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Factors associated with lifetime history of drug treatment among substance dependent women.
Walton-Moss, B., & Mccaul, M. (2006) · Addictive Behaviours · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2005.05.006 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Poverty and Family Reunification for Mothers with Substance Use Disorders in Child Welfare
Lloyd, M. H. (2018) · Child Abuse Review · doi:10.1002/car.2519 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Early Attrition From Treatment Among Women With Cooccurring Substance Use Disorders and PTSD
Resko, S. M., & Mendoza, N. S. (2012) · Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions · doi:10.1080/1533256x.2012.728104 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“Consistent with some earlier studies (e.g., T. M. Brady & Ashley, 2005; Green et al., 2002), our results demonstrated that the abuse of alcohol and other drugs were differentially associated with treatment dropout.”
ResultGender differences in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of methadone substitution therapy
Graziani, M., & Nisticò, R. (2015) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2015.00122 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Observational Study on Medications Prescribed to Dual-Diagnosis Outpatients
Grau‐López, L., Roncero, C., Daigre, C., Miquel, L., Barral, C., Gonzalvo, B., Francisco Collazos, D., & Casas, M. (2014) · Journal of Addiction Medicine · doi:10.1097/adm.0000000000000024 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“It should be taken into account that more men than women are treated in the addiction unit (Green et al., 2002; Miquel et al., 2013).”
BackgroundBernstein, J., Derrington, T. M., Belanoff, C. M., Cabral, H., Babakhanlou‐Chase, H., Diop, H., Evans, S. R., Jacobs, H., & Kotelchuck, M. (2014) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.11.025 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Desistance and Treatment Seeking Among Women With Substance Use Disorders
Rhodes, B. E., Gottfredson, N. C., & Hill, L. M. (2018) · Qualitative Health Research · doi:10.1177/1049732318767637 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Balhara, Y. P. S., & Dayal, P. (2016) · The Indian Journal of Medical Research · doi:10.4103/0971-5916.178616 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Specialty Courts: Current Issues and Future Prospects
Payne, J. (2006) · Trends and issues in crime and criminal justice · Cited by 20 · see citing works
How Do Indian Substance Users Perceive Stigma Towards Substance Use Vis-A-Vis Their Family Members?
Mattoo, S. K., Sarkar, S., Nebhinani, N., Gupta, S., Parakh, P., & Basu, D. (2015) · Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse · doi:10.1080/15332640.2014.980960 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Tang, Z., Claus, R. E., Orwin, R. G., Kissin, W., & Arieira, C. (2011) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.11.003 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“, 2003), treatment access and recovery processes (Green, 2006; Green et al., 2002; Greenfield et al., 2007; Grella et al., 2008; Westermeyer and Boedicker, 2000).”
Nissen, L. B., Butts, J. A., Merrigan, D. M., & KRAFT, M. K. (2006) · Juvenile and Family Court Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1755-6988.2006.tb00130.x · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Service completion Any attempt to address adolescent substance abuse problems will be less effective if youths and families fail to persevere with the intervention (McKellar, Kelly, Harris, & Moos, 2006; Green et al., 2002).”
BackgroundCooper, H. L. F., Clark, C. D., Barham, T., Embry, V., Caruso, B. A., & Comfort, M. L. (2013) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.3109/10826084.2013.824474 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Hill, L. (2018) · Corrections · doi:10.1080/23774657.2018.1433564 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Gender Comparisons Among Asian American and Pacific Islander Patients in Drug Dependency Treatment
Han, Y., Lin, V., Wu, F., & Hser, Y. (2016) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.3109/10826084.2016.1155604 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Although the present study showed AAPI women entered treatment at younger ages than AAPI men, it is not statistically significant, as has been found previous studies (Chatham et al., 1999; Green et al., 2002; Grella & Joshi, 1999; Y. I. Hser et al., 2005; Y. I. Hser et al., 2004; Y. I. Hser, Huang, et al., 2003).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialComiskey, C. M. (2012) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2012.04.002 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Male and female sexual orientation differences in gambling
Hershberger, S. L., & Bogaert, A. F. (2004) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2004.09.002 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Bull, M. (2003) · Griffith Research Online · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Yarborough, B. J. H., Chi, F. W., Green, C. A., Hinman, A., Mertens, J. R., Beck, A. L., Horberg, M. A., Weisner, C. M., & Campbell, C. I. (2018) · Journal of Addiction Medicine · doi:10.1097/adm.0000000000000399 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Other research has found no sex differences in treatment initiation, but evidence of sex-related differences in predictors of initiation (Green et al., 2002).”
BackgroundSelf-citationTransforming responses: Exploring the treatment of substance-using African American women
Jemal, A., Gunn, A., & Inyang, C. (2019) · Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse · doi:10.1080/15332640.2019.1579141 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Women–Focused Treatment Agencies and Process Improvement: Strategies to Increase Client Engagement
Wisdom, J. P., Hoffman, K. A., Rechberger, E., Seim, K., & Owens, B. H. (2008) · Women & Therapy · doi:10.1080/02703140802384693 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“than men to have co-occurring psychiatric disorders (Brady, Dansky & Sonne, 1998), face other barriers to treatment related to child-rearing responsibilities (Allen, 1995; Brady, Grice, Dustan, & Randall, 1993), and have more limited incomes, education, and job skills compared to men (Arfken, Klein, diMenza, & Schuste…”
Gender Aspects of Affiliation with Alcoholics Anonymous after Treatment
Bodin, M. C. (2006) · Contemporary Drug Problems · doi:10.1177/009145090603300106 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Evaluation of Proposition 36: The Substance Abuse and Crime Prevention Act of 2000 2008 Report
Urada, D. I., Evans, E., Yang, J. C., Conner, B. T., Campos, M., Brecht, L., Anglin, M. D., Fan, J., Hunter, J. G., Rutkowski, B. A., et al. (2008) · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Women with a substance use disorder: Treatment completion, pregnancy, and compulsory treatment
Smith, W. T. (2020) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2020.108045 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
A system-level study of initiation, engagement, and equity in outpatient substance use treatment
Urbanoski, K. A., Kenaszchuk, C., Inglis, D., Rotondi, N. K., & Rush, B. R. (2018) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2018.04.006 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Therapist Attitudes and Beliefs Relevant to Client Dropout Revisited
Pulford, J., Adams, P. J., & Sheridan, J. L. (2007) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-007-9116-5 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Typically referred to as ‘‘client dropout’’, this form of exit is common across the psychosocial treatment sector where it is widely regarded as problematic (Edlund et al. 2002; Green et al. 2002; Reis and Brown 2006).”
BackgroundUnilateral Treatment Exit: A Failure of Retention or a Failure of Treatment Fit?
Pulford, J., Adams, P. J., & Sheridan, J. L. (2006) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.1080/10826080601025847 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Responding to treatment dropout: a review of controlled trials and suggested future directions
Pulford, J., Adams, P., & Sheridan, J. (2010) · Addiction Research & Theory · doi:10.3109/16066350903151385 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Factors that interfere with any of these phases are likely to lead to worse outcomes’ (Green et al. 2002, p. 285).”
BackgroundOwens, M. D., Hallgren, K. A., Ladd, B. O., Rynes, K. N., McCrady, B. S., & Epstein, E. E. (2013) · Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07347324.2013.831668 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Barriers to Health Care: Implications for Problem Gambling
Clarke, D. E. (2007) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-007-9089-1 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Although women are less likely than men to seek treatment for substance abuse, when they do seek help, their substance-related and mental health problems are likely to be more severe, and they are less likely to begin treatment after initial assessment that they are eligible for treatment programmes (Green et al. 2002…”
BackgroundInfluentialRothman, E. F., Cheng, D. M., Pedley, A., Samet, J. H., Palfai, T. P., Liebschutz, J. M., & Saitz, R. (2007) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2007.07.006 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Davis, J. P., Christie, N. C., Dworkin, E. R., Prindle, J., Dumas, T. M., DiGuiseppi, G., Helton, J. J., & Ring, C. (2020) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2019.107721 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Prior research has found that women with more mental health problems are less likely to complete SUD treatment (Green et al., 2002); yet, in several literature reviews and meta-analyses (see Greenfield et al., 2007 for review), gender does not appear to be a specific predictor of treatment outcomes…”
MethodMaremmani, A. G. I., Bacciardi, S., Rovai, L., Rugani, F., Massimetti, E., Gazzarrini, D., Dell’Osso, L., & Maremmani, I. (2014) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph111212983 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“This is in line with other studies, and this finding can be considered specifically true for those dependent on alcohol [41–43], but it could also be extended to other substance use disorders, such as dependence on heroin [44].”
ResultPredictors of retention in a drug-free unit/substance abuse treatment in prison.
Casares-López, M. J., González-Ménendez, A., Festinger, D., Fernández-García, P., Fernández-Hermida, J., Secades, R., & Matejkowski, J. (2013) · International Journal of Law and Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2013.04.003 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Paradoxically, and in contrast to the findings from community studies (Green et al., 2002, 2004), physical health did not have a substantial influence on retention.”
ResultPredictors of retention in treatment in a tertiary care de-addiction center
Majumder, P., Sarkar, S., Gupta, R., Patra, B. N., & Balhara, Y. P. S. (2016) · Indian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.4103/0019-5545.174359 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“retention in treatment include presence of a psychiatric disorder,[8,9] motivation for treatment,[10,11] and cognitive characteristics of the client.”
BackgroundTreatment of Prescription Opioid Use Disorder in Pregnant Women
Guille, C., Barth, K. S., Mateus, J., McCauley, J. L., & Brady, K. T. (2017) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16060710 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Jiang, Y., Warner, L. A., Haverly, K., & Lambert-Wacey, D. (2013) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.3109/10826084.2013.840001 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
- Authors
- Green, C. A., Polen, M. R., Dickinson, D. M., Lynch, F. L., & Bennett, M. D.
- Affiliations
- Oregon Health & Science University (US)
- Kaiser Permanente Center for Health Research (US)
- Kaiser Permanente (US)
- Corresponding author
- Green, Carla A
- Venue
- Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2002-12
- Volume
- 23
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 285-295
- ISSN
- 0740-5472 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2122782976
- Cited by
- 201
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 2 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 11 · 2015: 19 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 4.50
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Kaiser Permanente
- National Institutes of Health (5r01aa010849-04)
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (AA10849)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Opioid Use Disorder Treatment
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychotherapy Techniques and Applications
- Keywords
- gender differences, addiction treatment, treatment initiation, treatment completion, treatment retention, health maintenance organizations, predictors of treatment outcome, alcoholism, opioid use disorder, mental health diagnoses, domestic violence, 12-step programs, Medicaid, employment, income
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Female, Gender Identity, Health Maintenance Organizations, Humans, Male, Patient Acceptance of Health Care, Patient Compliance, Patient Dropouts, Retention, Psychology, Sex Factors, United States, Substance Abuse Treatment Centers, Substance-Related Disorders
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