Companions in Crime: The Social Aspects of Criminal Conduct

“…with delinquent or deviant peers to be both directly and indirectly linked to offending (Akers, 1998; Matsueda & Anderson, 1998; Pratt et al., 2010; Warr, 2002), but there are contradictory explanations of this relationship, leading to questions about the actual influence of peers on crime.”

“The findings regarding the influential role of peers is not surprising, as this construct is one of the most robust correlates of offending (Pratt et al. 2010; Warr 2002).”

“As mentioned above, the group context of criminality is well known (Sutherland 1939; Warr 2002).”

“their offences together with their peers (Warr, 2002).”

“…Casey et al., 2017; Cuadra, Jaffe, Thomas, & DiLillo, 2014; Fang & Corso, 2007; Marshall & Barbaree, 1984; McGrath, Nilsen, & Kerley, 2011; Topitzes, Mersky, & Reynolds, 2011) and forms of abuse (e.g. drugs and alcohol; see Abracen & Looman, 2016; Haynie & Osgood, 2005; Passini, 2012; Warr, 2002).”

“However, given the foundational role of family conflict (Conger and Elder 1994) and peer associations (Warr 2002) in adolescent development, we have argued that both factors are meaningful outcomes in their own right.”

“It has been shown that adolescents spend much time in the company of friends of the same age (Warr, 2002; Wikström et al., 2012).”

“As peer influence often plays out during dynamic group situations (Warr, 2002), adolescents who show higher levels of self-control and who consider the long-term outcomes of their behavior may be less likely to go along with peers’ delinquent activities.”

“Important steps then were taken when realizing that selection into peer groups based on homophily and socialization within these groups are not mutually exclusive but appear to be closely related reciprocal processes (Warr, 2002).”

“Past studies are replete with examples that position peer relationships as central for understanding delinquent patterns among youth (e.g., Akers & Sellers, 2004; Haynie, 2001, 2002; Warr, 2002).”

“In his classic work Companions in Crime , Mark Warr (2002, p. 120) concludes that one reason why peer explanations of delin-quency are contentious and unsettled is that the evidence for peer effects is largely correlational and often highly inferential: “ despite strong and persistent evidence of peer in fl uence in th…”

“Exposure to delinquent peers in childhood and adolescence, in particular, is considered a risk factor for a host of deleterious outcomes ranging from substance use and abuse to violent forms of criminal involvement [4–6].”

“…perspectives (e.g., social disorganization, social control theories), many of which would also be subject to potential projection bias (e.g., Davies and Kandel 1981), the majority of the critical discussion of perceptual measures in criminology has focused on peer influence (Warr 1993, 2002).”

“…Elliott and Menard 1996; Haynie 2002; Haynie and Osgood 2005; Kandel 1978; Payne and Cornwell 2007; Piquero, Gover, MacDonald, and Piquero 2005; Warr 1993), and sexual behavior (Billy and Udry 1985; Brown, Clasen, and Eicher 1986; DiBlasio and Benda 1990; Little and Rankin 2001; Sieving,…”

“Differential association theory (Sutherland et al. 1995), which became part of the domains in SLT, states that crime is learned through intimate interactions, and peer influence is among the strongest predictors of crime and delinquency (Warr 2002; Pratt et al. 2010).”

“This finding is not surprising considering the vast amount of research linking peer deviance to individuals’ own deviance (e.g., Svensson & Oberwittler, 2010; Warr, 2002; Weerman & Hoeve, 2012; Wikström & Butterworth, 2006).”

“An important parallel body of research also shows that composition (including sex ratio) and structure of adolescent friendship groups/networks are important for females’ and males’ deviance (Giordano, 1978; Giordano, Cernkovich, & Pugh, 1986; Haynie, Steffensmeier, & Bell, 2007; Kreager, Rulison, & Moody, 2011; McCar…”

“PEER DELINQUENCY MISPERCEPTION 559 1985; Akers et al. 1979), many empirical tests include peer delinquency scales (see Pratt et al. 2010; Warr 2002).”

“For instance, the criminogenic influence of antisocial peer relationships is one of the most robust findings in the criminological literature (Warr, 2002).”

“In summary, unemployed men who have social ties with men who abuse woman, and who spend a large amount of time with their male friends are more likely to abuse women and to be “companions in crime” [81].”

“…of guardians is expected to reduce the likelihood of an act of crime (and the magnitude of the reduction is expected to be larger for the presence 9 Warr (1993, 2002) extends Hirschi ’ s (1969) psychological presence concept and aims to explain how adolescents are still influenced to conform by…”

“Moreover, ethnographic research in predominantly Black communities depicts crime and delinquency as the code of the street, which is needed for survival and as a way to “save face” or gain social status (Anderson, 1999; Warr, 2002).”

“Indeed, the literature discussing the role of peers in relation to onset and persistence (see for example Farrington 1992; Haynie 2001, Haynie 2002; Warr 1993, 2002) and desistance (see for example Calverley 2012; Giordano et al. 2003; Graham and Bowling 1995; Uggen and Kruttschnitt 1998) rather…”

“The use of recreational drugs by adolescents almost always occurs in a social setting (Warr 2002).”

“However, some prior studies have argued for the inclusion of the larger pool of associates from which co-offending decisions are made (Warr, 2002), or simply the inclusion of offenders who are indirectly involved in a specific crime as facilitators (Morselli & Roy, 2008; Tremblay, 1993).”

“…among network members or network autocorrelation (Burk, Steglich, & Snijders, 2007). dYNamIc SocIal Network modelS A challenge to testing influence effects in personal networks is that it is now recognized that selection and influence together function to affect adolescent delinquency (Warr, 2002).”

“After all, offenders tend to associate with other criminals (e.g., see Warr, 2002), thus increasing their exposure to those motivated to victimize them.”

“…unanimously shows that boys, compared to girls, have more contact with delinquent age-mates and that the composition of the friendship network depends on attachment to parents and parental control efforts (Cox et al. 1993; Elliott et al. 1985; Svensson 2003; Warr 2002; Weerman and Hoeve 2012).”

“To elaborate, Warr (2002) concluded that associating with deviant peers was consistently a correlate of the initiation and continuation of a wide variety of deviant behaviors.”

“…parenting in providing a child with the skills required to avoid future delinquent involvement (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990; Hirschi, 1969; Reiss, 1951), whereas peers are of cardinal significance to theorists operating out of a social learning framework (Akers, 1998; Sutherland, 1947; Warr, 2002).”

“For example, as youth enter adolescence they spend less time with their families and more time in unstructured and unsupervised activities with peers (Osgood et al. 2006; Warr 1993).”

“Typically, the focus has been friends’ delinquent behavior (Thornberry & Krohn, 1997; Warr, 2002).”

“The proposition that involvement in deviant networks leads to increased levels of delinquent activity through social learning processes and opportunity has been widely studied (e.g., Akers 1985; Warr and Stafford 1991; Thornberry and Krohn 1997; Warr 2002).”

“Few in criminology would argue that delinquent peer associations are not an important correlate of delinquency (Akers, 1985; 1998; Haynie, 2001; Warr, 2002).”

“…process, secondary and reference groups (e.g., the school system, colleagues and work groups, the mass media, the Internet, and computer and mobile games) can be equally important to the normative definitions (e.g., attitudes, beliefs, values, and norms) in the learning process (Warr, 2002).”

“Contextual Safeguarding recognises that during adolescence rules within extra-familial contexts can bear a stronger influence on young people’s decisions/behaviour than the nature of their familial relationships (Coleman, 2011; Firmin, 2017a; Warr, 2002).”

“…of social learning theory In general, narrative reviews, which essentially involve researchers synthesizing numerous studies and determining whether each individual study supports a proposition/theory, have generally supported social learning theory (see Akers and Jensen 2006; Cao 2004; Warr 2002).”

“Researchfindings show that in themajority of group crimes there is littleplanning,andmanyoccur, inpart,due to impulsive behavior (Warr, 2002).”

“Consistently with both American and cross-cultural studies, measures of differential peer association were found to be the strongest correlates of this form of adolescent substance use (Hwang and Akers 2003; Pratt et al. 2009; Warr 2002).”

“Indeed, research finds that youth crime tends to take place in groups (for example, Warr, 1996, 2002).”

“With fewer friends to encourage and reward deviant behavior, motivation for committing crime may diminish (Maruna & Toch, 2005; Schroeder, Giordano, & Cernkovich, 2008; Warr, 2002).”

“Depuis Quételet, on n’a cessé de faire état d’une relation inverse très marquée entre l’âge des délinquants et leur penchant au crime (Farrington, 1986 ; Sampson et Laub, 1993 ; Warr, 1998, 2002).”

“This finding is consistent with research showing that deviant peers are an important source of influence in delinquency 73 and extremist participation.”

“Social learning theory is often used to explain the correlations between adolescents’ interactions with peers and their behavioral outcomes [34].”

“…great physical and emotional development, peer attachment, and influence (Salmivalli, 2010; Wright & Cullen, 2001), and the impact of peer influence on adolescent behavior, especially offending, is well established in the literature (Akers, 1998; Haynie, 2001; Pellegrini & Long, 2002; Warr, 2002).”

“In contrast, presence of friends acted more strongly as triggers when in an area where the degree of environmental risk is low: when surroundings are relatively safe, hanging out with friends can enhance the likelihood of gunshot assault through impulsive/careless, “rowdy” behaviors (32).”

“…favorable toward violating law, peer pressure to engage in delinquent behaviors, and the structure and composition of friends’ network have been found to explain the link between delinquent friends and risk behaviors (Haynie, 2001; Haynie & Osgood, 2005; Warr, 2002; Whaley et al., 2010).”

“Previous research among adolescents supports this by showing that delinquent peers indeed increase individuals’ own risk of offending (Matsueda and Anderson, 1998; Warr, 2002; Weerman, 2011).”

“Ghetto housing in urban areas is believed to be harmful in reducing poverty and inequality, and is an obstacle to the building of a harmonious society; residential segregation is highly correlated with ghetto housing in developed and developing economies (Collins and Margo 2000; Wilson 1987; Haynie 2002; Haynie and Os…”

“The concurrency between individual and peer behavior is one of the most consistently reported findings in the literature (Pratt et al., 2010; Warr, 2002).”

“However, conceived as part of the DAT family with a focus on influence rather than selection, Sherif and Sherif (1964) and, later, Warr (2002) proposed something quite close to it.”

“Previous explanations for ethnic differences in violent behavior have largely focused on the individual or the community level, while other factors like friendship networks, which are, as generally known, important risk factors for delinquent behavior (cf. Warr, 2002), are rarely taken into account.”

“These extralegal sanctions generally entail embarrassment or stigma resulting from disapproval by people who are consequential to the decision-maker, which include romantic partners, family, friends, and coworkers (Grasmick and Bursik 1990; Warr 2002, 2016).”

“Given the strong and robust relationship between associating with deviant peers and one’s own deviance (Warr, 2002), conducting such an analysis allows for an initial validity test for the current study.”

“However, as Warr notes, the correlation between delinquent friends and delinquency that remains after self-selection is taken into account “says nothing about the process or mechanism of influence that gave rise to it, and the number of possibilities is large” (2002: 134).”

“…of offenders; this term is more reflective of the criminal responsibility incurred by offenders who kill together, particularly with respect to mixed sex groups in which the woman’s role is often mitigated (see, for example, Ajzenstadt, 2009; Myers, Gooch, & Meloy, 2005; Scott, 2005; Warr, 2002).”

“Overall, the findings conform to previous research (Elliott et al., 1985; Hirschi, 1969; Maguin & Loeber, 1996; Nagin & Paternoster, 2000; Sampson & Sharkey, 2008; Warr, 2002).”

“…to juvenile attitudes toward the police is appropriate since it is reasonable to assume that not all juvenile attitudes follow a common increasing or decreasing developmental pattern—counter to processes that lend themselves more to standard growth curve models (see Raudenbush, 2001; Warr, 2002).”

“Delinquent peer association has been linked to a variety of adverse behaviors, including substance use, externalizing behaviors, and criminal behaviors (Loeber & Dishion, 1983; warr, 2002).”

“A wealth of research has revealed that measures of delinquent peers are among the strongest and most consistent predictors of adolescent delinquent involvement (Warr, 2002).”

“Specifically, individuals ’ deviant behaviors are learned from interacting with others (associations), such as family members, friends, and coworkers (Akers and Jennings, 2009; Warr, 2002).”

“Moreover, adolescents show an increased interest in socialising with their peers (Steinberg, 2011) and acceptance from peers is of great importance to them (Crone and Dahl, 2012; Warr, 2002).”

“Previous research confirms the encouraging effect of friends: more time spent with peers increases deviant behavior during adolescence (Warr 2002), a finding that also applies to alcohol consumption (Beier 2018).”

“A very large body of research has shown that individuals are more likely to be delinquent when they associate with delinquent peers (Warr 2002).”

“…of two or more (Andresen and Felson, 2012; Breckinridge and Abbott, 1912; Cohen, 1955; McCord and Conway, 2002; Shaw and McKay, 1942; Piquero, Farrington, and Blumstein, 2003; Reiss, 1986, 1988; Reiss and Farrington, 1991; Shaw and Moore, 1931; van Mastrigt and Farrington, 2011; Warr, 1996, 2002).”

“, 1986; Houtzager and Baerveldt,1999) and that peer influence is a primary mechanism for delinquent behavior (Warr, 2002; Weerman, 2011).”

“This is a potential concern considering that prior research suggests that delinquent adolescents are more likely to have older peers (Kerr, Stattin, & Keisner, 2007; Warr, 2002).”

“Typically, the focus has been on the degree to which the peer group engages in delinquent behavior (Thornberry & Krohn, 1997; Warr, 2002).”

“Peer influences can occur through mechanisms such as fear of ridi-cule or the desire for loyalty, which produce compliance and opportunities for status enhancement (e.g., acceptance, reward systems; Warr 2002).”

“…learning process, secondary and reference groups (e.g., the school system, colleagues and work groups, the mass media, the Internet, and computer and mobile games) can be similarly important to normative definitions (e.g., attitudes, values, norms, and beliefs) in the learning process (Warr, 2002).”

“…have, for example, suggested that co-offending may offer social support (e.g., Lantz & Ruback, 2017a); increased peer approval and respect (e.g., Warr, 2002); future information about potential targets (e.g., Felson, 2003; Lantz & Ruback, 2017b); and increased enjoyment and excitement (e.g.,…”

“, a general tendency to delinquent behavior) or crime-specific (Matsueda, 1988, 1997; Warr, 2002).”