Companions in Crime: The Social Aspects of Criminal Conduct

“…lack of social integration and deficient bonds to other individuals and to social institutions; Hirschi, 1969), whereas differential association theory (Sutherland & Cressy, 1955; Warr, 2002) posits, in contrast, that delinquent behavior is learned from interactions with others who are delinquent.”

“In particular, time spent unstructured socialising with peers (‘hanging out’) has a strong relation with juvenile delinquency (Hoeben et al., 2016; Warr, 2002; Weerman et al., 2015), in particular when it happens in public places (Hoeben & Weerman, 2016).”

“The relationship between social environments and individual criminal behaviour is indeed one of the most consistently observed phenomena in psychological and criminological research overall, especially in adolescence (Gallupe et al., 2019; Monahan et al., 2009; Pratt et al., 2010; Warr, 2002).”

“Acting as ‘ external instigators ’ (Hoeben and Thomas, 2019; see also Warr, 1996, 2002), aggressive peers can direct attention towards aggression-conducive opportunities or frictions that may otherwise have been overlooked.”

“Indeed, peers play an important role for adolescent development [61], and peer delinquent behavior, including the use of entry-level substances, is considered a general risk factor for delinquency and violent crime [62].”

“As Warr (2002) noted: [f]reed from the rigid and simplistic moral rules of childhood and unencumbered by the more utilitarian rules of adult world, [adolescents] can establish a moral code that sup-plants that of the outside world, granting legitimacy to otherwise illegitimate conduct and…”

“Several scholars in sociology and criminology under-score the effect of social networks in crime decisions (Papachristos 2014; Warr 2002).”

“Adoles - cents are especially likely to co-offend in peer groups (Warr, 2002), and co-offending may strengthen processes of normative criminogenic influence (Defoe et al., 2021).”

“Other theories provide explanations on why individuals would only engage in crime in a speci fi c setting (e.g., Agnew 1992; Sutherland 1947; Warr 2002).”

“McGloin and Piquero (2009), for example, found that, on average, violent o ff enses involved more individuals than non-violent o ff enses.”

“An emphasis on situational effects is consistent with the observation that adolescents often commit delinquency in groups (e.g. Erickson & Jensen, 1977; Felson & Eckert, 2019; Reiss, 1988; Warr, 2002; Zimring, 1998).”

“This body of evidence is especially strong regarding substance misuse and minor forms of deviance (Warr, 2002).”

“This finding is in contrast to other domains of behaviors, such as externalizing behavior among adolescents, where peer influence is considered a major explanatory factor (e.g., Warr, 2002).”

“Moreover, Warr (2002) asserted that although primary social groups (e.g., family, peers) tend to have a greater influence on the behavioral learning process, secondary and reference groups (e.g., the education system, colleagues and work groups, the mass media, the Internet, and computer and mobile…”

“This is suggestive of a higher degree of marginalisation and impact associated with homelessness (see, e.g. Baron, 2006; Chapple et al., 2004; Daley & Chamberlain 2009; Hagan & McCarthy, 1997; Hauff & Secor-Turner, 2014; Warr, 2002; Yoder et al., 2014) than with young people in long-term unemployment, itself a clearly…”

“Group offending has been a focus among criminologists for many decades (Erickson, 1971, 1973; Reiss, 1988; Shaw & McKay, 1931; Thrasher, 1936a, 1936b; Warr, 2002).”

“Different theoretical traditions are used to substantiate such social influence more generally (see also Burgess & Akers, 1966; Festinger, 1954; Warr, 2002; Zajonc, 1968).”

“Delinquent peer affiliation has also been shown to be a major criminogenic risk factor for delinquency (Warr, 2002).”

“…criminological research has revealed that living in a crime-ridden neighborhood, being raised by cold and withdrawn parents, being reared in poverty, and associating with delinquent peers are all key contributors to the development of chronic offending (Sampson & Laub, 1993; Warr, 2002).”

“Exposure to peer delinquents is also associated with an adolescent’s own involvement (Warr, 2002).”

“However, in the field of criminology the importance for offenders of their personal network has been emphasized as well (see also Warr, 2002).”

“Consistent with child development literature emphasizing adolescence as a key period of susceptibility to peer influence (Sullivan, 2006; Warr, 2002), all girls in the study described instances when peers and romantic partners impacted their decisions to engage in delinquency.”

“This is an interesting finding, since it is often argued that careful composition of school classes is very important to prevent development of juvenile delinquency [8, 12].”

“Multiple theories argue that situational factors, such as increased proximity to potential targets or provocations that increase an individual’s willingness to engage in crime, should increase the potential for offending (e.g., Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990; Warr, 2002).”

“For example, the vicious cycle of violence can be moderated by the context surrounding the vic-timization, social responses, victim relief, and interactions with the community (Akers & Sellers, 2005; Morris & Higgins, 2010; Sutherland et al., 1992; Warr, 2002).”

“And, at that point, it was easier to stay away from homies on the streets (Participant 29).”

“Prior research has consistently shown that one of the most important features of crime is the presence of co-offenders (e.g., Lantz, 2021; McGloin & Piquero, 2009; Warr, 2002).”

“Across these perspectives, behaviors, much like other forms of crime and delinquent activities (see Haynie 2001; Reiss and Farrington 1991; Warr 2002; Weerman 2003), are learned through social interactions and in association with those in close social and spatial proximity.”

“…years have significantly poorer life outcomes, including poorer school performance (Bernburg et al., 2006; Sweeten, 2006), less employment-related success (Warr, 2002), significantly greater recidivism (Gatti et al., 2009; McCord, 1978; Restivo & Lanier, 2015), alcoholism (McCord, 1978) and more.”

“Still, it bears noting that previous research on peers and development has indicated that peers are a very salient influence on behavior during adolescence (Warr, 1993; Warr, 2002).”

“His emphasis on “identifiable leadership” and “well-developed lines of authority and other organizational features,” suggested that gangs were not merely co-offending groups, much less “institutionalized groups” (Warr, 2002, p. 5), but had structures akin to formal organizations.”

“If they continue their criminal careers after this age, offenders tend to switch to solo-offending (Carrington, 2002; Lantz & Ruback, 2017; Reiss, 1988; Warr, 2002).”

“Delinquent peer association has long been documented as one of the strongest predictors of delinquency and crime (Akers, 2009; Warr, 2002).”

“The role of peer influence and group processes in developing criminal behavior is a core idea in the criminology field (Akers 1998; Pratt et al. 2010; Warr 2002).”

“Peer relationships also play a potent role in JIYW delin-quent behavior (Haynie et al., 2005; Hubbard & Pratt, 2002; Leve et al., 2015; Warr, 2002).”

“…forms of crime and research illustrates how the presence of other potential offenders alters decision-making processes that make crime more appealing; however, this has not yet been explored in the context of academic dishonesty (e.g., McGloin and Rowan 2015; McGloin and Thomas 2016; Warr 2002).”

“Juvenile delinquency commonly occurs in small groups and as part of young adults’ social activities (Haynie & Osgood, 2005; Loeber & Farrington, 2000; Reiss, 1988; Warr, 2002), with a notable inclination among minors to take risks when committing offenses (Richards, 2011) and remain within their close geographical sur…”

“, 2003), whereas antisocial peer associations leading to antisocial behavior is an example of the peer influence or socialization effect (Warr, 2002).”

“Beyond access and opportunities, networks establish and regulate social norms about appropriate use (Warr, 2002; Schaefer et al., 2013).”

“…are at-risk for using and abusing drugs and alcohol (Gilman et al., 2015; Mowen & Visher, 2015), for facing significant financial hardships (Massoglia & Pridemore, 2015), for receiving public assistance (Gilman et al., 2015), and for having consistent contact with antisocial peers (Warr, 2002).”

“Research has demonstrated that there is a relationship between violent crime and co-offending irrespective of gang status and that temporary co-offending groups pres-ent a heightened risk for certain categories of crime (Warr, 2002).”

“Because peers and partners are especially influential in late adolescence and young adulthood (Copp et al., 2020; Haynie, 2002; Seffrin et al., 2009; Warr, 2002), it would be worthwhile to examine the association between parental incarceration and subsequent social relationships, identity, and behavioral outcomes.”

“The study of co-offending has a rich history in street crime research (Albanese 2007; Reiss 1986; Warr 2002).”

“Meanwhile, Akers (1996) and Warr (Warr 2002; Warr and Stafford 1991) have pointed out that merely the intensive presence of the peers is enough to shape conformity.”

“Peer deviance is a paramount risk factor for a variety of deviance, as recorded in a plethora of contemporary sociology and criminology literature (Hoeben and Weerman 2014; Warr 2002; Warr and Sta ff ord 1991).”

“Adolescents may be attracted to acts of crime because of pleasant consequences such as social approval, social acceptance, status, and respect (Matsueda, Kreager, & Huizinga, 2006; Warr, 2002).”

“…samples of adolescents, exposure to delinquent peers often differentiates individuals who offend from those who do not (e.g. Pratt et al., 2010; Warr, 2002); however, among a sample of active offenders, embeddedness within a deviant network may operate differently and instead reduce the…”

“…revolves for the most part around our parents (and other immediate family members like siblings), but then in adolescence, we become closer and more reliant socially on our peers (Warr, 2002), which then often transitions to relationships with romantic partners later in life (Sampson & Laub, 2003).”

“Due to the importance of friendships in emerging adulthood (e.g., Warr, 2002) and taking these findings in conjunction with a number of failed attempts to decrease alcohol use on campuses (e.g., Larimer & Cronce, 2007), a wise word of warning regarding policy may be pertinent: Wellintended attempts…”

“…31 July 2017 KEYWORDS Friendship quality; heavy alcohol use; marijuana; perceptions; projection Research has consistently established a positive relationship between perceptions of substance use and an individual’s substance use behaviors (e.g., Akers et al. 1979; Kandel 1973, 1978a; Warr 2002).”

“Research has also been directed at changes in co-offending over time, and it is widely known that especially young offenders commit crimes together with others (Warr, 2002).”

“Social support providers can have critical roles in supporting or discouraging violent behavior (Andrews & Bonta, 1994; Estroff & Zimmer, 1994; McCarthy & Hagan, 1995; Monahan, 1981; Monahan, Steadman, & Silver, 2001; Shapiro & diZegera, 2010; Warr, 2002).”

“Overall, these findings comport with previous research (e.g. Gardner & Brooks-Gunn, 2009; Gibson et al., 2009; Harding, 2009a, 2010; Pratt & Cullen, 2000; Sampson et al., 1997; Warr, 2002).”

“Warr (2002) asserts that separating offenders from their criminally-minded peer group can serve to reduce access to criminal opportunities.”

“As Warr (2002) suggests, there are many different ways in which peers may influence the behavior of others.”

“Peer delinquency remains among the strongest and most consistent predictors of personal delinquency in the existing criminological literature (Agnew, 1991; Warr, 2002).”

“Coupled with their biological development, adolescents continue to expand their social networks and gradually move from families to schools and peers and engage increasingly in activities that involve primarily same-age peers (Hill & Holmbeck, 1986; Warr, 2002, 2005).”

“This is problematic given the robust relationship that deviant peer association has with engagement in a variety of risky behaviors and the overall salience of peer influence on behavior during ado - lescence (Chan, 2021; Goetz et al., 2025; Warr, 1993, 2002; Wojciechowski, 2018).”

“To measure differential association with peers engaging in online harassment , one of the moderating variables of this study, we adapted the measurement used by previous literature into a binary format (Warr, 2002; Warr & Stafford, 1991).”

“Delinquent peer association emerges as a consistent predictor of such behavior (Haynie et al., 2014; Seddig, 2014; Warr, 2002), especially among boys who exhibit higher rates of aggressive behaviors compared with Note .”

“To illustrate, an adolescent who is arrested and ultimately incarcerated is at-risk for a lack of educational achievement and attainment (Blomberg et al., 2011) and for being embedded in antisocial peer networks (Warr, 2002).”

“These theories have shown that individuals, families, and peers play significant roles in explaining substance use and abuse (Hirschi, 2002; Warr, 2002).”

“Summarizing the criminological research of the past century, Warr (2002: 3) argues that there are only a few conclusions that can be drawn with a great deal of confidence, one of them being that: “Criminal conduct is predominantly social behaviour (…) and the single strongest predictor of criminal…”

“1) remains relatively constant with the age of organized crime offenders, a finding which differs from similar results for general offenders (e.g., Andresen and Felson 2010; Carrington 2002; Reiss 1988; Warr 2002).”

“9 Perceived peer disapproval refers to responsivity to peer acceptance, which is especially relevant during adolescence (Somerville, 2013; Warr, 2002).”

“Our results are consistent with research on both offender re-integration where fewer friends that encourage and reward deviant behavior are correlated with diminishing motivation for committing crime [30] along with de-radicalization processes based on social pressures of non-radicalized friends that make continued in…”

“strongest and most consistent criminogenic influences (Berg and Mulford 2020; Pratt and Cullen 2000; Warr 2002).”

“And while proactive criminal thinking is often learned in association with antisocial peers (Warr, 2002), reactive criminal thinking stems from a person’s failure to learn to curb the natural human tendency to be impulsive.”

“Past research has indicated that the salience of peers as an influence on behavior increases as individuals enter adolescence (Warr, 1993, 2002).”

“A comprehensive amount of research certifies that peer delinquency ranks among the strongest and most prominent predictors of delinquency (Agnew, 1991; Bentrup, 2014; Haynie, 2002; Matsueda & Anderson, 1998; Pratt et al., 2010; Seddig, 2013; Warr, 2002).”

“Strong group bonds are a known agent of the transmission of criminal motivation and techniques (Sutherland, 1939; Warr, 2002).”

“Crime is often a social event (Warr, 2002).”

“These factors are the result of marginalization of juveniles in the already severely disadvantaged segments of society (Warr, 2011).”

“Media coverage inflates public estimates of criminal victimization and fuels fear of crime (Ferraro 1995; Warr 2002), which, in turn, can diminish people’s quality of life (Skogan, Lurigio, andDavis 1990).”

“tate each other’s explosion of aggression toward the victim (15).”

“Since youth are more likely to participate in violence when they are in the presence of their friends (Gardner & Steinberg, 2005; McGloin & Piquero, 2009; Warr, 2002), staff can develop programs in which rival youth, and youth that dislike specific racial groups, participate in healthy activities together while being…”

“Differential association (Warr, 2002) and routine activities (Felson, 2002) theories draw attention to the fact that adolescents who are disengaged from school are more likely to spend time with antisocial peers in settings conducive to criminal offending.”

“One of these, which has been well documented, is the influence of social relationships and the presence of peers as contributors to involvement in criminal activities (Reiss, 1988; Warr, 2002).”

“Second, prior research by Warr (1998, 2002) indicates that youth are more likely to be in closer physical and social proximity to other institutionally disengaged youth due to their life course stage.”