Companions in Crime: The Social Aspects of Criminal Conduct

“While much of this research focuses on adolescence due to the increased salience of peer influence during this period of the life-course (Warr, 1993, 2002), there is also a great deal of importance to understanding deviant peers in the time leading up to adolescence.”

“The importance of com - munality in deviance disavowal has been repeatedly confirmed empirically (Durkin & Bucklin, 2000; Warr, 2002 ).”

“There are several transitions that occur during the adolescence period which may have impacted hallucinogen use among JIY such as peer influence increasing in salience and the potential access that may be provided through these peer ties (Coomber et al., 2016; Vlaemynck, 2016; Warr, 1993; 2002).”

“This fits well with integrated criminological models of delinquency, which position delinquency as being most prevalent at the nexus between structural disadvantage and social disorganization (Swearer, 2016; Warr, 2008).”

“This would offer stronger evidence of causal pathways and developmental continuity (Mof fi tt, 1993; Warr, 2002).”

“While this is understandable given that the salience of peer influence peaks during adolescence (Warr, 1993, 2002), this limited focus is problematic because it says very little about the time preceding this important period of the life-course.”

“Students who experience rejection from their school community may look for other places to fi t in, frequently joining antisocial peer groups that promote deviant behavior (Ede, 2020; Ede & Ofoegbu, 2021; Warr, 2018).”

“…most frequently tested theoretical elements in the field, with empirical support demonstrating its strength as a robust correlate of both online and offline criminal behavior (Akers & Jensen, 2006; Bossler & Burruss, 2011; Lee et al., 2004; Pratt et al., 2010; Skinner & Fream, 1997; Warr, 2002).”

“Peers increase in the salience of their influence during adolescence also (Warr, 1993, 2002).”

“As previously noted, delinquency is most often executed by boys in all-boy groups (Warr 2002), and though girls’ delinquent participation is thought to have increased in recent decades terms of frequency and scope (Meda and Pasko 2013), substantial gender gaps in violent offending remain…”

“For instance, engagement in ASB is more likely to occur in groups (Warr, 2002), and is associated with the attainment of higher status among peers (Hawley, 1999).”

“In a general sense, peers begin to take on a greater salience and influence as begin individuals enter into adolescence (Warr, 1993, 2002).”

“While this seems to be true for social support provided by adults, peer groups represent the most salient social ties during adolescence (Warr, 1993, 2002), so social support provided by these individuals should be considered also.”

“…die Anzahl der Kontakte zu delinquenzaffinen Gleichaltrigen die Wahrscheinlichkeit eigener strafbarer Handlungen (Gerstner & Oberwittler 2015; Hirtenlehner & Bacher 2017; Hoeben, Meldrum, Walker & Young 2016; Matsueda & Anderson 1998; Pratt et al. 2010; Svensson & Oberwittler 2010; Warr 2002).”

“The peer group can be helpful here because peers allow for social comparison with similar others and provide room for experimentation with different social roles (Warr, 2002).”

“…that perceptual measures of peer delinquency are one of the strongest known correlates of one’s own delinquency (Agnew, 1991; Pratt et al., 2010; Warr, 2002). yet, the validity of these measures has been questioned by several researchers (e.g., Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990; Haynie & Osgood,…”

“Nonetheless, it is widely recognized that the number of delinquent friends is a robust predictor of adolescent delinquency (Elliott, Huizinga, & Ageton, 1985; warr, 2002).”

“24 Although affiliation with delinquent peers is strongly related to delinquent behaviors and substance use (Warr, 2002; Shoemaker, 2005), the basis of this interaction with peers is not so clear (Shoemaker, 2009).”

“The strong cultural push toward the marginalization of women into the domestic sphere reduces overall female offending due to ‘‘the knifing off’’ of criminal opportunities (see, Miller and Mullins, 2006; Warr, 2002).”

“study, particularly due to the historically prominent influence of peers in shaping youthful behavior, and the traditionally insulating role of the family and school in socially controlling the actions of children and teens (Cernkovich and Giordano 1992; Steinberg 2001; Warr 2002).”

“…which is extremely valuable in the absence of enforceable formal agreements such as in cooperation in crime (Tremblay 1993) and research has consistently found that co-offending relationships are often homophilous (Grund and Densley 2012; Sarnecki 2001; Reiss and Farrington 1991; Warr 2002).”

“As the peer-group is the primary source of socialization during adolescence (Warr 2002), friends and classmates serve as a key source of exposure to models of behavior promoting drinking, smoking, and drug use.”

“Trust and reciprocity therefore are key mechanisms in the process of creating social capital and developing criminal relationships (Coleman, 1990; Warr, 2002).”

“Similar to self-control theory, differential association theory (Sutherland 1947) assumes that the general process leading to delinquency is invariant across sexes (Warr 2002).”

“In some cases, co-offenses reflect processes associated more with a temporary ‘‘mob mentality’’ than with more stable changes in behavior (Warr 2002).”

“Extensive research in criminology underscores the substantial link between peers and deviance (Akers, 1998; Haynie, 2002; Pratt & Cullen, 2000; Pratt et al., 2010; Warr, 1993, 2002).”

“Gang influence [24,25] q 0.75 SAPS petty crime share [1] κ 0.40 JICS non-custodial rate [30] σ p 0.5 yr -1 SALRC petty processing [40] σ n 0.33 yr -1 SALRC serious processing [40] ρ a 0.6 yr -1 DCS/Muntingh [28,29] ρ p 0.3 yr -1 DCS [29] ρ n 0.1 yr -1 Singh [39] ω p 0.2 yr -1 Samuels et al. [32] ω…”

“This presents an opportunity to interact with individuals who share similar identities and circumstances, thereby increasing the risk of future deviance (Warr, 2002).”

“The fifth advantage is that it powerfully explains how criminal behavior is transmitted socially between individuals and groups (Warr, 2002).”

“Following rejection, adolescents may gravitate toward delinquent peer groups, which are often more tolerant of norm-violating behavior (Warr, 2002).”

“In addition, Research by Warr (2002) and Wood and Alleyne (2010) support this finding.”

“Even in the absence of peers, it shapes behavior through social influence mechanisms (Beier, 2018; Fish-bein and Ajzen 2011; Hoeben and Thomas 2019; Matsueda, O’Neill, and Kreager 2020; McGloin and Thomas 2017; Warr 2002).”

“Existing research into co-offending has provided convincing evidence for an increase in the frequency and severity of offending, as well as for higher rates of recidivism (Conway and McCord 2002 ; Lantz and Hutchinson 2015; Sarnecki 2001; Warr 2002 ).”

“Similarly, even individuals who engage in careful deliberation and consideration of action alternatives may feel pressured to disregard prosocial options when peers steer them toward offending to gain their praise and acceptance (Warr, 2002).”

“This leads to a lack of students' sense of security and trust in the bullying handling system, so that many victims are reluctant to report because they are afraid of stigma or lack of protection (Warr, 2002).”

“Similarly, it was not possible to include more direct dispositional controls including self-control, impulsivity, or peer deviance, which might be associated with both moral functioning and engagement in risky behaviors (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990; Warr, 2002).”

“For example, studies involving theoretical perspectives have demonstrated individual, family, and peer factors contribute greatly to explaining adolescent substance use behaviors (Akers, 2017; Hirschi, 2002; Warr, 2002).”

“It is well established that adolescent delinquency is highly correlated with the delinquency of their peers (Warr, 2002), and weapon carrying is more common among youth whose friends carry (Docherty et al., 2019).”

“Prior studies have shown that living with a significant other significantly decreases the probability of an individual being involved in criminality because of increased informal social control (Warr, 2002).”

“Moreover, in relation to offending, it is widely known within the field of crimi-nology that associations with antisocial and deviant peers are an important predictor of youth offending (e.g., [72, 82–89]).”

“Additionally, consistent with Warr (2002), the influence of peers remains one of the strongest predictors of deviant behavior, highlighting the critical role peer relationships play in understanding both gang involvement and later-life contact with the criminal justice system (McGloin and Thomas…”

“This selective association process can mitigate or exacerbate their exposure to community violence; young people who align themselves with deviant peers are more likely to be exposed to community violence (Lambert et al., 2005; Warr, 2002; Weist et al., 2001).”

“…with this view, a large number of empirical studies have demonstrated that associating with delinquent peers heightens the risk of delin-quent involvement (e.g., McGloin, 2009; Thomas, 2015; Warr, 2002), providing consistent support for the social learning approach (see McGloin & Thomas, 2019).”

“Measures of delinquent peers have been shown to be among the most salient predictors of delinquent involvement and victimization and in order to account for this robust association (Warr, 2002), we included a three-item delinquent peers scale in the analysis.”

“Peer behavior is one of the strongest predictors of alcohol use and other problematic youth behaviors (Akers, 1998; Pratt et al., 2010; Warr, 2002).”

“It is argued that criminal behavior is “predominantly social behavior” (Warr 2002:3).”

“Second, there is a significant amount of criminological research showing that exposure to delinquent peer networks is one of the strongest predictors of crime and delinquency (Warr, 2002).”

“This is because of the distinct focus of criminology peers generally are the most relevant social relationships for influence during this period during adolescence (Warr, 1993, 2002).”

“…criminal desistance studies, Weaver (2015, p. 2) points out that the methodological focus is generally on individuals rather than groups even though the collective context within which much offending takes place is well established (Akers 1998; Cloward and Ohlin 1960; Sutherland 1947; Warr 2002).”

“In the passage to adulthood, juveniles encounter various social interactions that occur outside of the family structure (Cairns & Cairns, 1994; Thornberry & Krohn, 2005; Warr, 2002), and schools play a major role in juveniles’ development (Gottfredson, 2001).”

“…has been connected with poverty (Jarjoura et al., 2002), attending sub-par schools lacking adequate funding (Gottfredson, 2001), residing in poor families and communities (Hay et al., 2007), and associating with peers who do not value prosocial attitudes and behaviors (Warr, 1993, 2002).”

“Several studies (Piquero, 2002; Laub, Nagin, & Sampson,1998; Warr, 2002, 1998) showed that only healthy (solid or good) marriages affect desistance.”

“should not be all that surprising given the large body of research that has documented a linkage between exposure to antisocial friends and involvement in a broad array of risky behaviors.(15) Studies have also linked peer associations specifically to risky driving behaviors,(12,17,19,20) but no research, to our knowl…”

“is rewarded, and through direct reinforcement (Warr 2002).”

“With the advent of Sutherland’s (1947) differential association theory of crime, peers are seen as an important correlate, if not cause, of crime (Warr, 2002).”

“Ook loyaliteit aan de groep en de angst om belachelijk gemaakt te worden dragen bij aan de groepsdruk voor jongeren om zich te conformeren aan het gedrag van hun vrienden (Warr, 2002).”

“…Grundlage entschieden wird, wem man sich situativ und mittelfristig eher verbunden fühlt, bzw. wer zur aktuellen Interessenslage und den eigenen Zielen am besten passt, anstatt Kontakte z. B. bloß auf eine stabile Ähnlichkeit bzgl. sozialer und ethnischer Herkunft zurückzuführen (Warr, 2002).”

“formation of peer ties, which generally become most salient during adolescence (Warr, 2002).”

“As children with conduct problems become adolescents, they are more likely to associate with deviant peers (Warr, 2002).”

“The strong relationship between peer and personal substance use is not surprising, given our understanding of the increasingly important role that peers play for child and adolescent development (Warr 2002).”

“Delinquency refers to unlawful acts which are committed by youth under 18 from all backgrounds and used as a common term to identify the scope of criminal behavior involving all types of status offenses (Felson, 2003; Warr, 2002) while delinquent is the youth committing the crime (Shoemaker, 2010).”

“Differential association theorists state that if an individual changes their associations within their social network, then behaviour changes can also occur (Aker, 1998; Espelage, Holt & Henkel, 2003; Warr, 2002).”

“최근 또래요인과 학교폭력 가해행동의 선행연구를 살펴보면 또래관계는 청소년 문제행동 뿐 아니라 폭력행동에 가장 커다란 영향력을 미치는 요인으로 보고 있다(남현미, 옥선화, 2001; Warr, 2002).”

“However, recent research suggests that attachments to delinquent others may be particularly salient for girls and serve to increase their involvement in particular kinds of crime and deviance (Haynie 2003; Warr 2002; Steffensmeier 1993).”