Companions in Crime: The Social Aspects of Criminal Conduct

“Cohen & Felson, 1979; Farrington, Sampson, & Wikstrom, 1993; Felson 2002; Horney, Osgood, & Marshall, 1995; Wikstrom & Sampson, 2003), strain theory (Agnew, 1992, 2001), social learning theory (Akers, 1998; Akers & Jensen, 2006; Haynie, 2002; Warr, 2002), control theory (Hirschi, 1969), and integrated explanations of…”

“ridicule, to physical punishment, to expulsion from the group and severing of friendships (Anderson, 1999; Mathews & Agnew, 2008; Warr, 2002).”

“Contacts with people who have committed offences have been described by some scholars as a significant factor in relation to an individual’s own criminality (see, for example, Sarnecki, 1986, 2001; Shaw & McKay, 1942; Sutherland, 1939; Warr, 2002).”

“…to in the literature as ‘‘attitude transference’’ in deviant behavior and is often linked directly to the concept of differential association (Haynie 2002; Hochstetler et al. 2002; McCarthy 1996; Matsueda and Heimer 1987; Mears et al. 1998; Tittle et al. 1986; Warr 2002; Warr and Stafford 1991).”

“Research has consistently documented the importance of friendship and peers in adolescent behavior and delinquency (Warr, 2002).”

“The empirical work addressing the relationship between peers and delinquency is substantial (e.g., Haynie, 2001; Matsueda & Anderson, 1998; Thornberry, Lizotte, Krohn, Farnworth, & Jang, 1994; Warr, 2002).”

“Furthermore, the influence of peers on offending is well-documented (Warr 2002), and youth who identify more of their best friends as attending religious services have lower rates of delinquency (Dick et al. 2019).”

“For example, Warr (2002) demonstrated that the circulation of information in a dense delinquent network may cause damage to potential delinquents since intense communication in a dense network makes it difficult for them to retain information about their vulnerabilities, daily routines, and guarded…”

“Research by McGloin and Kirk (2010) and Warr (2002) reveals that the number of co-offenders an offender is surrounded by is a powerful indicator of criminal behaviour; the more co-offenders to whom they are linked, the more ‘centrality’ they are said to have.”

“Accordingly, having delinquent friends is proven to be one of the strongest predictors of delinquent behaviour (e.g. Warr 2002).”

“…King et al., 2007; Sampson & Laub, 1993), other research has suggested that the relationship between marriage and desistance for males is not direct and that disruption in delinquent peer associations may explain male desistance more so than marriage (see Simons et al., 2002; Warr 1998, 2002).”

“For example, exposure to violent peers is a particularly robust correlate of interpersonal violence [16], whereas depression is among the strongest correlates of suicidal behavior [17].”

“The frequency and intensity of association with peers who commit and approve of crime and delinquency is expected to be a particularly salient source of individual differences in offending in adolescence and emerging adulthood (Warr, 2002).”

“Social interaction becomes more complex and subtle, and self-consciousness and fear of rejection become acute (Warr, 2002).”

“Unsurprisingly, the criminological literature has consistently reported that delinquent peers influence delinquent behaviour (Matsueda, 1988; Warr, 2002).”

“Research shows that the social context, like the presence of peers (Warr, 2002), authority figures (Milgram, 1974), or simply being in a hurry (Darley and Batson, 1973) can have a strong influence on whether someone sticks to generally endorsed moral values and corresponding judgments.”

“Other theories emphasize a within-individual change in the tendency to co-offend due to factors associated with maturation: decreased gregariousness (Stolzenberg & D’Alessio, 2008), greater autonomy (Carrington, 2002, 2009), and lower susceptibility to peer influence (Farrington, 2005; Warr, 2002).”

“Research has routinely documented the significance of peer relationships for individuals during adolescence (Barter 2009; Coleman 2011; Warr 2002), for both a sense of self and for status; a loss of these created a relational safety deficit.”

“…to adolescents during this transition, the impact of parental involvement decreases, and the influence of peers becomes more powerful in shaping their behavior (Akers, 1998; Dishion, Nelson, & Bullock, 2004; Steinberg & Silverberg, 1986; Thornberry, 1987; Thornberry & Krohn, 1997; Warr, 2002).”

“…new relationships, moving to a new school can promote disengagement from the gang (Carson and Esbensen 2016) as well as desistance from crime (Warr 1998, 2002).1 In fact, several studies point to a positive impact of school transitions, whether normative or otherwise, on peer relations,…”

“Such potential differences in the behavioral characteristics of movers’ friendships are especially relevant in the context of differential association and social learning theories, under which the content rather than the structure of ties influences adolescent outcomes (Warr, 2002).”

“This test and ones that follow generally support social learning theory as a predictor of illicit drug use (Akers & Jensen, 2005; Warr, 2002).”

“Greater attention to the mechanisms of peer influence could also shed some much-needed light on the dynamics of negative peer influence as well (Warr, 2002).”

“Peers are clearly one of the most robust predictors of delinquent behavior (Warr, 2002).”

“Our findings are consistent with extant research on the general importance of peer networks for shaping adolescent problem behaviors (Matsueda, 1982; Kandel & Davies, 1991; Thornberry, Lizotte, Krohn, Farnworth, & Jang, 1994; Akers, 1985; Warr, 2002) and they reaffirm the relevance of peers for explaining the impact o…”

“Males were more likely to pirate software.”

“…exploration, but among the young adults, the negative effect may be interpreted according to the age-graded theory of social control which suggests that roles associated with adulthood (e.g., legitimate employment and parenthood) shape the nature of peer groups and their influence (Warr 2002).”

“, 1993) and, more broadly, that having delinquent friends increases the probability of delinquent behavior (Warr, 2002).”

“Having delinquent peers is a risk factor that both in theory and empirically has been shown to be relevant for juvenile delinquency (McGloin & Dipietro, 2013; Warr, 2002).”

“Delinquent peers may be an important environmental factor influencing later criminal behavior as associating with delinquent peers has been shown to be consistently associated with involvement in delinquent and criminal behavior (Haynie, 2001; Warr, 2002).”

“In the delinquency literature, one of the most supported findings is the association between a youth’s delinquent behavior and that of their friends (Agnew, 1991; Akers et al., 1979; Elliott, Huizinga, & Ageton, 1985; Haynie 2001; Kandel, 1978; Matsueda & Anderson, 1998; Warr, 2002).”

“Peer influence may be the principal proximate cause of most deviant behavior of youth (Warr 2002).”

“Because of the large influence of delinquent/criminal peers on offending, I ask questions regarding the number of peers college students have who engaged in several criminal or deviant acts and the attitudes of their friends towards these acts (Agnew, 1991; Akers, 1998; Haynie, 2002; Matsueda & Anderson, 1998; Warr, 2…”

“In fact, Warr (2002) concluded that marijuana and alcohol use specifically occur almost entirely in group settings.”

“This may be detrimental in the long-term, as social learning theory suggests that conventional norms are reinforced by supportive peer groups (Akers, 1998; Warr, 2002).”

“Many researchers have called for methodological advancements to improve the study of aggression (e.g., Fontaine & Dodge, 2006; Eisner & Malti, 2015; Murray et al., 2022) and peer influence (e.g., Cairns & Cairns, 1994; McGloin & Thomas, 2019; Warr, 2002).”

“Ample evidence demonstrates that individuals are more likely to commit a crime when in the company of peers (Agnew 1991; Haynie 2001, 2002; Hoeben and Thomas 2019; Matsueda and Anderson 1998; McGloin and Thomas 2019; Osgood and Anderson 2004; Thornberry et al. 1994; Warr 2002; Weerman 2011).”

“In particular, the positions of instigator and follower are dynamic, depending on the make-up of the group and the time of offence (Warr, 1996, 2002; Weerman, 2003).”

“Men, on the other hand, are more likely to have delinquent peers, join gangs, and be incarcerated for violent or property crimes (Bronson & Carson, 2019; Warr, 2002).”

“In this sense, “cyberspace” can be thought of as an online, social context providing a source of peers who can transmit and reinforce values supportive of crime (McCuddy, 2021; Warr, 2002).”

“The primary challenge to the general theory of criminality comes from learning theories, arguing that in some tightly bonded subgroups there exist anti-social norms and sentiments that are internalized in individuals and manifested in criminal behavior (Akers 1998); the learning perspective especially points to associ…”

“Notably, scholars have taken a life course perspective by exploring how co-offending is related to the criminal career (McGloin & Stickle, 2011; Piquero, Farrington, & Blumstein, 2003; Reiss, 1988; Warr, 2002).”

“In that light, desistance is not necessarily coupled with a reduced presence of peers in the personal network (Warr, 1998, 2002) but accompanies a change in the normative orientation of the peers in the network.”

“Addressing these shortcomings, a notable friendship researcher has emphasized that the phrase “peer deviance [is] used to hide an appalling lack of knowledge about how peers promote delinquency” (Warr 2002: 88–89).”

“Peer relationships become increasingly important in early and middle adolescence, and adolescents increasingly experience pressure to adopt norms, values, and behavior of their friends [26, 29].”

“Humiliation and hierarchy all apply to group loyalty – particularly among sporting males – and ridicule and status competition serve to reinforce it (Warr 2002), therefore, for male athletes, disparaging comments can help reinforce the hierarchy with words such as ‘pussy’ or ‘gay’ that pose deep…”

“Finally, association with delinquent peers has proved to be one of the strongest correlates of delinquency in between-individual comparisons (Mcgloin, 2009; Warr, 2002).”

“Research has also shown that exposure to antisocial peers is related to increases in an individual’s own antisocial behavior (Dishion, McCord, & Poulin, 1999; Dodge, Dishion, & Lansford, 2006; Haynie & Osgood, 2005; Warr, 2002).”

“Warr (2002) argues that peer association is a process that provides a clear foundation for learning any behavior—criminal or conforming.”

“Literature on openness to influence has focused on differences in relation to status characteristics such as age (Warr 1993, 2002) and gender (Thornberry and Krohn 1997), as well as on family structure or attributes of parents (Berndt 1979; Brown, Clasen, and Eicher 1986; Brown et al. 1993; Mounts…”

“…or delinquent behavior (Paternoster et al., 2013), and research has consistently shown that one of the most important features of the social context of crime is the presence of co-offending, or group offending (e.g., Lantz, 2021; McGloin & Piquero, 2009; McGloin & Thomas, 2019; Warr, 2002).”

“social problem, where incidents are commonly committed by more than one person [35].”

“For instance, housemates may facilitate criminal behavior through the creation of criminal opportunities or by putting an individual in situations conducive to crime (Laub & Sampson, 2003; Osgood et al., 1996; Warr, 2002).”

“Indeed, elements of social learning—such as the number of delinquent friends, which is one of the most consistent predictors of crime (Pratt et al., 2010; Warr, 2002)—are consistently found to be correlated with crime and delinquency.”

“These hypotheses are in line with the companions in crime hypothesis (Warr 2002).”

“The peer influence or socialization model, in contrast, proposes that youth acquire the attitudes and techniques of crime by interacting with delinquent peers, such that delinquent peer associations encourage participant offending (Akers, 1998; Warr, 2002).”

“…that peers exert the strongest behavioral effect on people during late adolescence (e.g., Giordano, 2003; Meisel, Colder, Bowker, & Hussong, 2018; Warr, 2002), researchers have identified that peers are largely protective from crime when people are in their mid-20s until the age of retirement…”

“Given the central importance of group membership to young people, there are many reasons why juveniles would be willing to participate in criminal group activity (Warr, 2002).”

“…has been proved as a strongly reliable and widely generalizable risk factor of delinquency (Akers, 1998; Akers & LaGreca, 1988, 1991; Akers, LaGreca, Cochran, & Sellers, 1989; Dull, 1983; Neff & Waite, 2007; Orcutt, 1987; Tittle, Burke, & Jackson, 1986; M. Warr, 2002; M. C. Warr & Stafford, 1993).”

“Relational problems with peers can be particularly distressing for females – an issue of moderating factors, not necessarily differential exposure (Vigil 2008; Warr 2002).”

“Moreover, the measure used in the present study and previous studies was based on peers’ delinquent acts, which are more influential toward one’s behavior than non-behavioral measures (e.g., peers’ opinions; Warr, 2002).”

“more elusive and clearly there are both selection and peer influence effects on antisocial behaviour that need to be considered (Warr, 2002).”

“…of examining a youth’s peer group in relation to his or her violent behavior has been illustrated in a variety of prior studies, usually within the context of social learning theory (Sutherland 1947, Giordano et al. 1986, Agnew 1991, Akers 1998, Haynie 2001, Warr 2002, Haynie and Payne 2006).”

“…delinquent peers is strongly correlated with youth violence: it is universally portrayed as a risk factor (Haynie & Osgood, 2005; Institute of Behavioral Sciences, 1987; Multisite Violence Prevention Project, 2004; Shaw & McKay, 1942; Thornberry, 1987; Thornberry et al., 1994; Warr, 1993, 2002).”

“Previous research points to the importance of family members and peer groups and their critical roles in supporting or discouraging violent behavior (Monahan, 1981; McCarthy & Hagan, 1995; Warr, 2002).”

“Co-offending may be associated with a lower risk of reoffending where social processes in fl uence someone with a low overall propensity to commit a crime with co-offenders (e.g., McGloin & Piquero, 2009; Warr, 2002).”

“Peer modelling and reinforcement of positive emotion expressed in relation to AB provides a possible explanation for the increased likelihood of AB in groups (Warr, 2002).”

“Contextual morality : As adolescents tend to spend much time in the company of their friends (Warr 2002), the moral context of their action settings is often at least in part determined by the attitudes of their peers (Hirtenlehner and Hardie 2016; Hirtenlehner and Schulz 2021).”

“Based on the social learning theory, an individual may be more likely to reconstruct his or her online identity to protect privacy in cyberspace if he or she observes that others (such as the associated individuals/groups or other Internet users) have experienced some negative consequences resulting from the unauthori…”

“…that while adults are less influenced by peers given the centrality of their work and relationship commitment, peers may occupy a central role in the lives of adults who are not married, unemployed, or employed in “bad” jobs (Crutchfield and Pitchford 1997; Cernkovich and Giordano 2001; Warr 2002).”

“In addition, as Warr (2002) so aptly notes, the social aspect associated with criminal activity cannot be ignored.”

“The peer domain (Warr, 2002) consists of a measure related to perceived Peer Delinquency, measured by asking the proportion of one’s friends that committed seven different acts of delinquency over the past year (α = .86).”