Companions in Crime: The Social Aspects of Criminal Conduct

“, reference group theory; see Newcomb 1950; Sherif 1948) and research (see Veenstra et al. 2013; Warr 2002) that assumes that peer influence is directional: People are influenced by those who they choose as friends.”

“Second, this includes an examination of age as the field has a longstanding interest in understanding differences between juveniles and adults, both in terms of criminal behavior (Laub & Sampson, 2003; Warr, 2002) and in how age conditions the way a person is treated by the justice system (Feld, 1999; Steffensmeier, U…”

“…of the strongest correlates of juvenile delinquency (Elliott, Huisinga, & Ageton, 1985; Loeber, Stouthamer-Loeber, Van Kammen, & Farrington, 1991; Warr, 2002), and it has been found that peer pressure was more powerful than family environment in predicting delinquent behavior in early…”

“It may be that processes explicated in these theories such as social learning principles (e.g., Warr, 2002) involved with deviant peer affiliations are compatible within the general framework of the biosocial liability model advanced here.”

“Therefore, we examine friendship ties in this study and concentrate on adolescence, a stage in the life course when friends are central to one’s social network (Warr 2002).”

“Empirical research supports this hypothesis (Akers and Jensen 2006; Akers and Lee 1996; Haynie 2002; Warr 2002).”

“Further, the nature of the internet allows users to establish virtual peer relationships with individuals with whom they have no face-to-face relationship, but with whom they associate only in an online environment (Warr 2002), expanding the possible pool of influences from whom they learn criminal behaviors themselve…”

“Group criminality is pre‐eminently a characteristic of youth delinquency (Warr, 2002).”

“This is commonly referred to as homophily or the peer selection effect (Gottfredson and Hirschi 1990; Warr 2002).”

“Peers have been shown to be important social agents that influence youth substance use and exposure to victimization (Warr, 2002).”

“The criminological literature suggests that peers have a strong link with delinquency (Akers, 1998; Warr, 2002).”

“The association between delinquent peers and delinquency has proven to be among the strongest in delinquency research and is one of the most consistently reported findings in the delinquency literature (May& Jarjoura, 2006; Warr, 2002).”

“Peer groups even exist virtually (Warr, 2002), but Akers suggests that the most individually valuable associations will have the largest impact on an individual’s behaviors.”

“…who engage in co-offending commit a greater number of offences and at more serious levels (Hin-delang, 1976; Felson, 2003; Sarnecki, 2001; Warr, 2002; Zimring, 1981) and that co-offending has the potential to further embed individuals in criminal lifestyles, including by expanding and…”

“Second, while it is true that fewer ties generally prevent information leakage (Brass, Butterfield, and Skaggs, 1998), having more ties allows actors to learn how social control agents detect and catch wrongdoing (Sykes and Matza, 1957; Warr, 2002; Caravita et al., 2014; Bouchard and Malm, 2016; Chan et al., 2020).”

“another individual predisposition: definitions and attitudes regarding deviance (e.g., Akers, Sellers, & Jennings, 2017; Burgess & Akers, 1966; Warr, 2002).”

“more focused on intimate talk than activities), and are more likely to be negatively evaluated rather than accorded prestige/status if they commit violent acts (Leonard 1982; Warr 2002; Youniss & Smollar 1985; see also Giordano 2009).”

“Prior work also shows that peer influence can impact offending (Warr, 2002; Warr & Stafford, 1991; Zhang & Messner, 2000).”

“During adolescence, as youth begin to exert increasing independence from parents and families, peers become particularly influential, especially for problem behaviors (Warr 2002).”

“Moreover, offenders are often surrounded by negative influences (Visher, Yahner, & LaVigne, 2010; Warr, 2002) and often lack good decision-making skills (e.g., Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990; Lynam & Miller, 2004; Ross & Fabiano, 1985; Vazsonyi, Pickering, Junger, & Hessing, 2001).”

“…and delinquency (Akers, 2009, p. 116; Battin-Pearson, Thornberry, Hawkins, & Krohn, 1998, p. 1; Elliott, Huizinga, & Ageton, 1985, p. 71; Jaccard, Blanton, & Dodge, 2005, p. 135; Pratt et al., 2010; Reiss, 1986; Thornberry & Krohn, 1997, p. 218; Warr, 2002, p. 42; Warr & Stafford, 1991, p. 851).”

“[19,20]), trait aggression (cf.”

“Scholars have previously noted the importance of peer networks in predicting delinquency (e.g., Warr 1993, 2002).”

“Two indicators, available in the first wave, are included to control the influence of exposure to delinquent peers and antisocial subcultures (Akers, 1998; Warr, 2002).”

“As summarized by Thornberry and Krohn (1997) and by Warr (2002), there is a large body of research from Short’s studies in the 1950s onwards showing on the basis of indirect measures that having friends who offend is one of the strongest correlates of own offending in the teenage years.”

“Criminologists that have examined the issue focused primarily on the role of family– environmental variables, such as direct and indirect role of parents (Harris, 1998; Hirschi, 1969) or proximity to delinquent peers (Warr, 2002).”

“Specifically, known predictors of crime should be targeted in these programs; these include factors such as low self-control (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990) or antisocial attitudes and maintaining criminal associates (Akers, 1977; Warr, 2002).”

“The consequences of formal justice system contact on interpersonal relationships may be even more important during adolescence as peers serve as the principal source of social reaction to newly applied labels and constrain selection into conventional (and deviant) peer networks (Warr, 2002).”

“…more deviant peers often report higher levels of crime, substance use, and deviance than individuals with fewer deviant peer associates (Elliott, Huizinga, & Ageton, 1985; Haynie & Osgood, 2005; Matsueda & Anderson, 1998; Vásquez & Zimmerman, 2014; Warr, 1998, 2002; see also Beaver et al., 2011).”

“One might surmise that when isolated from peers individuals would be protected from the negative effects that peers have during adolescence such as engaging in delinquent behavior (Warr, 2002).”

“Smoking and getting drunk represent illegal behaviors that are both “groupy” to a great extent, strongly influenced by peers, risky, and potentially harmful (e.g. Warr, 2002; Zimmerman & Vasquez, 2011).”

“…lack selfcontrol (e.g. Gottfredson and Hirschi, 1990; Hay, 2001; Lagrange and Silverman, 1999), who have low moral standards (Wikström, 2006), who are poorly supervised by their parents (Dishion and McMahon, 1998; Kerr and Stattin, 2000), and who have delinquent peers (Warr, 2002; Weerman, 2011).”

“The behavior of peers and norms in society each play a central role in driving both positive and negative behaviors (Warr, 2002).”

“As Warr (2002) argued, “The fact that adolescents often face the threat of violence at school and elsewhere suggests a mechanism that may encourage group formation in daily life” (p. 83).”

“Co-offending is particularly common among juvenile offenders, declines with increasing age and is rare among adult offenders (Warr, 2002).”

“Since young people spend plenty of time in the company of peers (Warr, 2002), their friends’ discernable stance towards offending represents a suitable indicator of the moral make-up of adolescents’ immediate environment at the point of action.”

“However, a group’s intercentrality is only defined in Ballester et al. (2010), using post-intervention network index (Definition 13It is well established that criminality is a social action with strong peer influences (see, for example, Jerzy (2001); Mark (2002); Patacchini and Zenou (2012)).”

“Peer based social influences in adolescence are clearly significant (Steinberg & Morris, 2001), and remain relevant in juvenile delinquency trajectory modeling (Warr, 2012).”

“As for the type of di ff erential association, both traditional and online peers can be in fl uential (Warr, 2002; Miller & Morris, 2016), demonstrating that subcultural knowledge and norms can be shared through online interactions (Holt & Copes, 2010; Steinmetz & Tunnell, 2013).”

“As a result, peer acceptance, conformity to peers, and status within a peer group become strongly tied to adolescent selfidentity (Warr, 2002).”

“However, research on general peer effects may provide some clues (Warr, 2002).”

“…and exposure to antisocial peer groups are associated with an increased probability of displaying serious signs of childhood antisocial behavior, as well as delinquent and criminal involvement later in life (Farrington, 2005; Harris, 1995, 1998; Patterson, Capaldi, & Bank, 1989; Warr, 2002).”

“Prior studies indicate that deviant peer networks are strongly related to individual behavior (Warr 2002); however, the majority of work in this area examines youths’ friends as potential negative influences.”

“…factors, such as exposure to delinquent peers and being reared by criminal parents, and biological factors, such as head injuries and neuro-biological functioning, are associated with the development of criminal offending (Besemer et al., 2017; Glenn & Raine, 2014; Schwartz, 2021; Warr, 2002).”

“Firstly, to account for the influence of delinquent friends (see Akers, 1998; Warr, 1993, 2002; Watt & Rogers, 2007), a measure that asked respondents “Of your three best friends, how many [drink/binge drink] alcohol once a month?” was included in the analysis.”

“…during the COVID-19 pandemic may have had a major impact on youth participation in crime and delinquency, as the criminal behavior of minors commonly occurs in small groups and as part of their social activities (Gottfredson and Hirschi 1990; Haynie & Osgood, 2005; Reiss, 1988; Warr, 2002).”

“This theoretical model has more recently been extended to explain victimization in terms of deviant peer association (Schreck et al., 2004; Warr, 2002).”

“Multidimensional homophily among social associates (Buss, 1985; Glueck and Glueck, 1950; Warr, 2002) suggests that first cellmates with longer records are likelier to associate with other inmates who have longer records and vice versa.”

“…who engage in deviance and delinquency tend to have friends who also break rules and laws (Akers, Krohn, Lanza-Kaduce, & Rodosevich, 1979; Elliott, Huizinga, & Ageton, 1985; Haynie, 2001; Haynie & Osgood, 2005; Kreager & Haynie, 2011; Matsueda & Heimer, 1987; Warr, 2002).”

“La explicación más común de esta videncia pone el énfasis en las influencias sociales del grupo de ares (Farrington, 2006; Warr, 2002).”

“In other research, criminality has been found by Sampson and Laub (1993) to be dependent upon social structure and social networks while Warr (2002) finds that influence of peers is also important.”

“…delinquent peers and come to form delinquent peer groups focuses on the direct and indirect roles of family (Hirschi, 1969) and proximity to delinquent peers (Warr, 2002), more recent research focuses on the possibility that genes may underlie propensities for associating with antisocial peers.”

“As youths age, the influence of their parents begins to wane as they gain increased autonomy (Thornberry, 1987), and peers begin to have a more important influence on behavior (Akers, 1998; Thornberry & Krohn, 1997; Warr, 2002).”

“The relationship between adolescents’ offending and the delinquent behaviour of their peer group1 is one of the best-established facts in criminology (Akers, 1998; Warr, 2002),”

“Individuals who co-offend commit a higher number of offences and at more serious levels (Felson, 2003; Hindelang, 1976; Lantz, 2021; Sarnecki, 2001; Warr, 2002; Zimring, 1981).”

“Other confounding processes we were able to account for include standard predictors of both group delinquency and mental health—neighborhood conditions, peer behavior, and parenting (Sampson et al. 2002; Warr 2002; Lahey et al. 1999).”

“Because adolescents tend to spend much time together with their friends (Warr, 2002), the moral context of their immediate action settings is often formed by the attitudes and beliefs of their peers (Hirtenlehner & Hardie, 2016).”

“Peers may provide rationalizations that allow individuals to engage in crime in specific situations (Sutherland, 1947), affect perceived reinforcement contingencies (Akers, 1998), act as a generalized other that promotes a deviant identity (Heimer & Matsueda, 1994), or influence delinquency through a host of other gro…”

“…stimuli such as victimization, while other research indicates more gender similarities between girls and boys in terms of social bonds providing a buffer against delinquency (Fagan & Wright, 2012; Kaufman, 2009; LaGrange & Silverman, 1999; Moffitt, Caspi, Rutter, & Silva, 2001; Warr, 2002).”

“On the one hand, this is similar to what we find among criminal groups in general, with a subset of offenders serving as the instigators to the crime event, bringing together a set of co-offenders to complete the act (e.g. Lantz and Hutchison 2015; Warr 1996; 2002).”

“Such pressurewithin the friendship may be increased by loyalty to the friend (Warr, 2002) prompting the adolescent to adopt or maintain a deviant behaviour.”

“Many studies have tried just that—applying social learning theory outside the conventional boundary of less serious offenses committed by adolescents in America to examine the generality of social learning theory (Neff & Waite, 2007; Sellers et al., 2003; Warr, 2002).”

“When youth run away from home, they become more vulnerable to becoming part of the runaway or homeless youth community which subjects them to a peer groups already engaged in deviant behaviours (Warr, 2002).”

“However, the Internet offers a virtual meeting place whereby persons can meet at any time and develop influential peer groups (Flache 2004) that may remain online or extend into physical space (e.g., Warr 2002).”

“Owing to the fear of exclusion or negative reactions from the group (Real & Rimal, 2007), desiring to show loyalty and maintain status (Warr, 2003), and seeking out social acceptance from deviant peers (Real & Rimal, 2007), individuals are more likely to obey such beliefs what deviate from…”

“Prior research has noted that the salience of peer influence generally peaks during adolescence (Warr, 1993; 2002).”

“Perhaps poor prosocial functioning limits interactions with peers, which, in turn, lowers the risk of affiliation with delinquent peers – delinquency, by and large, is believed to be (in part) a social behavior (Warr 2002).”

“This trajectory of criminological thought has experienced several advancements and specifications (Akers, 1973, 1998; Akers & Sellers, 2000; Burgess & Akers, 1966; Sutherland, 1947; Warr & Stafford, 1991; Warr, 2002).”