The DOI matches its Crossref record.
Making Votes Count: Strategic Coordination in the World's Electoral Systems
Abstract
Popular elections are at the heart of representative democracy. Thus, understanding the laws and practices that govern such elections is essential to understanding modern democracy. In this book, Cox views electoral laws as posing a variety of coordination problems that political forces must solve. Coordination problems - and with them the necessity of negotiating withdrawals, strategic voting, and other species of strategic coordination - arise in all electoral systems. This book employs a unified game-theoretic model to study strategic coordination worldwide and that relies primarily on constituency-level rather than national aggregate data in testing theoretical propositions about the effects of electoral laws. This book also considers not just what happens when political forces succeed in solving the coordination problems inherent in the electoral system they face but also what happens when they fail.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Second, mass polarization in terms of partisan alignment (Fig. 1b) focuses on the dimensionality of the political space.”
From Cognitive–motivational mechanisms of political polarization in social-communicative contexts (2022) · cites this paper as [64]
In the citing paper
“Por tanto, el número de candidatos es un aspecto clave en la lógica de la coordinación estratégica en el plano electoral (Cox 1997).”
From EL COSTO DE COORDINAR: NÚMERO DE CANDIDATOS PRESIDENCIALES EN AMÉRICA LATINA 1993-2010 (2017) · cites this paper as Cox 1997
In the citing paper
“Por una parte, cuando la presidencia es un “gran premio”, esto puede incentivar la conformación de pocos partidos legislativos que se organicen en torno a la disputa presidencial (Shugart y Carey 1992;Jones 1995;Cox 1997;Mainwaring y Shugart 1997;Golder 2006).”
From EL COSTO DE COORDINAR: NÚMERO DE CANDIDATOS PRESIDENCIALES EN AMÉRICA LATINA 1993-2010 (2017) · cites this paper as Cox 1997
Citations
Cites
Still being checked.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–200 of 1,001
Coalition-directed Voting in Multiparty Democracies
Duch, R. M., May, J., & Armstrong, D. A., II (2010) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055410000420 · Cited by 171
Comparing Strategic Voting Under FPTP and PR
Abramson, P. R., Aldrich, J. H., Blais, A., Diamond, M., Diskin, A., Indridason, I., Lee, D. J., & Levine, R. (2009) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0010414009341717 · Cited by 169
Hansen, M. A., & Olsen, J. (2018) · German Politics · doi:10.1080/09644008.2018.1509312 · Cited by 183
Voters and their representatives: Electoral institutions and delegation in parliamentary democracies
Mitchell, P. (2000) · European Journal of Political Research · doi:10.1023/a:1007025105144 · Cited by 167
Proportional representation and attitudes about politics: results from New Zealand
BANDUCCI, S. A., Donovan, T., & Karp, J. A. (1999) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/s0261-3794(99)00019-0 · Cited by 172
Taagepera, R. (2007) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199287741.001.0001 · Cited by 166
District magnitude, electoral formula, and the number of parties
Benoit, K. R. (2001) · European Journal of Political Research · doi:10.1023/a:1011067724688 · Cited by 164
The Mean Voter Theorem: Necessary and Sufficient Conditions for Convergent Equilibrium
Schofield, N. J. (2007) · The Review of Economic Studies · doi:10.1111/j.1467-937x.2007.00444.x · Cited by 161
Term Limits and the Dismantling of State Legislative Professionalism
Kousser, T. B. (2001) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511614088 · Cited by 160
Party systems and cleavage structures revisited
Bértoa, F. C. (2012) · Party Politics · doi:10.1177/1354068811436042 · Cited by 165
Harbers, I. (2009) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0010414008330285 · Cited by 157
Party Formation and Policy Outcomes under Different Electoral Systems
Morelli, M. (2004) · The Review of Economic Studies · doi:10.1111/j.1467-937x.2004.00306.x · Cited by 155
Benford's Law and the Detection of Election Fraud
Deckert, J., Myagkov, M., & Ordeshook, P. C. (2011) · Political Analysis · doi:10.1093/pan/mpr014 · Cited by 152
Motivating the European voter: Parties, issues and campaigns in European Parliament elections
HOBOLT, S. B., & Spoon, J. (2012) · European Journal of Political Research · doi:10.1111/j.1475-6765.2012.02057.x · Cited by 151
Correct Voting Across Thirty-Three Democracies: A Preliminary Analysis
Lau, R. R., Patel, P., Fahmy, D. F., & Kaufman, R. R. (2013) · British Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1017/s0007123412000610 · Cited by 150
Going It Alone? Strategic Entry under Mixed Electoral Rules
Ferrara, F., & Herron, E. S. (2004) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1111/j.0092-5853.2005.00107.x · Cited by 149
Effects of the Core Functions of Government on the Diversity of Executive Agendas
Jennings, W., Bevan, S., Timmermans, A. I., Breeman, G. E., Brouard, S., Chaqués‐Bonafont, L., Green‐Pedersen, C., John, P. C., Mortensen, P. B., & Palau, A. M. (2011) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0010414011405165 · Cited by 147
Electoral Incentives in Mixed-Member Systems: Party, Posts, and Zombie Politicians in Japan
Pekkanen, R. J., Nyblade, B., & Krauss, E. S. (2006) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055406062095 · Cited by 147
Not all election winners are equal: Satisfaction with democracy and the nature of the vote
Singh, S. P. (2013) · European Journal of Political Research · doi:10.1111/1475-6765.12028 · Cited by 146
Which Electoral Formula Is the Most Proportional? A New Look with New Evidence
Benoit, K. R. (2000) · Political Analysis · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.pan.a029822 · Cited by 146
Rational Choice Theory and Explanation
Lovett, F. (2006) · Rationality and Society · doi:10.1177/1043463106060155 · Cited by 157
Corruption and Electoral Support for New Political Parties in Central and Eastern Europe
Engler, S. (2015) · West European Politics · doi:10.1080/01402382.2015.1084127 · Cited by 144
Patterns of Electoral Governance in Africa's Emerging Democracies
Mozaffar, S. (2002) · International Political Science Review · doi:10.1177/0192512102023001005 · Cited by 144
The Normalization of an Anomaly: The Workers' Party in Brazil
Hunter, W. (2007) · World Politics · doi:10.1017/s0043887100020888 · Cited by 137
A survey of post-communist electoral institutions: 1990–1998
Shvetsova, O. (1999) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/s0261-3794(99)00013-x · Cited by 135
Selection Bias in Comparative Research: The Case of Incomplete Data Sets
Hug, S. (2003) · Political Analysis · doi:10.1093/pan/mpg014 · Cited by 133
Blais, A., & Aarts, K. (2006) · Acta Politica · doi:10.1057/palgrave.ap.5500148 · Cited by 140
The Governor' Backyard: A Seat-Vote Model of Electoral Reform for Subnational Multiparty Races
Calvo, E. F., & Micozzi, J. P. (2005) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2508.2005.00350.x · Cited by 133
Gidengil, E., Blais, A., Nadeau, R., & Nevitte, N. H. (1999) · Canadian Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1017/s0008423900010489 · Cited by 132
“Extreme” Electoral Systems and the Appeal of the Mixed‐Member Alternative
Shugart, M. S. (2003) · doi:10.1093/019925768x.003.0003 · Cited by 130
The Normalization of the Radical Right
Valentim, V. (2024) · doi:10.1093/9780198926740.001.0001 · Cited by 146
The Origins of Dominant Parties
Reuter, O. J. (2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316761649 · Cited by 129
Political Representation and Legitimacy in the European Union
Schmitt, H., Thomassen, J. J. A., & Schmitt, H. (1999) · doi:10.1093/0198296614.003.0001 · Cited by 127
Can Parties Police Themselves? Electoral Governance and Democratization
Lehoucq, F. (2002) · International Political Science Review · doi:10.1177/0192512102023001002 · Cited by 129
Re‐evaluating the relationship between electoral rules and ideological congruence
Golder, M., & Lloyd, G. (2014) · European Journal of Political Research · doi:10.1111/1475-6765.12031 · Cited by 104
The struggle over dimensionality: A note on theory and empirics
Vries, C. E. D., & Marks, G. W. (2012) · European Union Politics · doi:10.1177/1465116511435712 · Cited by 123
Scarrow, S. E. (2002) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/0199253099.003.0005 · Cited by 124
Proportional Representation and Female Parliamentarians
SALMOND, R. (2006) · Legislative Studies Quarterly · doi:10.3162/036298006x201779 · Cited by 122
Bernauer, J., Giger, N., & Rosset, J. (2015) · International Political Science Review · doi:10.1177/0192512113498830 · Cited by 118
Capital and Opposition in Africa: Coalition Building in Multiethnic Societies
Arriola, L. R. (2013) · World Politics · doi:10.1017/s0043887113000051 · Cited by 120
Representative Democracy as Defensible Epistocracy
Landa, D., & Pevnick, R. (2019) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055419000509 · Cited by 115
Samuels, D. (2002) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0010414002035004004 · Cited by 114
Latin American Democratization since 1978: Democratic Transitions, Breakdowns, and Erosions
Mainwaring, S. P., & Pérez‐Liñán, A. (2001) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511791116.002 · Cited by 115
Alvarez, R. M., Kiewiet, D. R., & Núñez, L. (2018) · Annual Review of Political Science · doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050517-120425 · Cited by 111
Meffert, M. F., & Gschwend, T. (2011) · European Journal of Political Research · doi:10.1111/j.1475-6765.2010.01986.x · Cited by 110
Cusack, T. R., & Beramendi, P. (2006) · European Journal of Political Research · doi:10.1111/j.1475-6765.2005.00290.x · Cited by 114
Presidents and Parties: How Presidential Elections Shape Coordination in Legislative Elections
Hicken, A. D., & Stoll, H. (2011) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0010414011401231 · Cited by 108
The Limits of Electoral Reform
Bowler, S., & Donovan, T. (2013) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199695409.001.0001 · Cited by 109
Electoral Laws and the Effective Number of Candidates in Presidential Elections
Jones, M. P. (1999) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.2307/2647780 · Cited by 107
The Politics of Dominant Party Formation: United Russia and Russia's Governors
Reuter, O. J. (2010) · Europe Asia Studies · doi:10.1080/09668130903506847 · Cited by 111
Coordination, Moderation, and Institutional Balancing in American Presidential and House Elections
Mebane, W. R. (2000) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.2307/2586379 · Cited by 106
Two-stage electoral competition in two-party contests: persistent divergence of party positions
Owen, G., & Grofman, B. (2006) · Social Choice and Welfare · doi:10.1007/s00355-006-0087-1 · Cited by 105
When Might Institutions Change? Elite Support for Direct Democracy in Three Nations
Bowler, S., Donovan, T., & Karp, J. A. (2002) · Political Research Quarterly · doi:10.1177/106591290205500401 · Cited by 105
Representation in Context: Election Laws and Ideological Congruence Between Citizens and Governments
Powell, G. B. (2013) · Perspectives on Politics · doi:10.1017/s1537592712003635 · Cited by 104
A Deeper Look at the Proportionality—Turnout Nexus
Selb, P. (2008) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0010414008327427 · Cited by 104
Is it Rational to Vote? Five Types of Answer and a Suggestion
Dowding, K. M. (2005) · The British Journal of Politics and International Relations · doi:10.1111/j.1467-856x.2005.00188.x · Cited by 104
WHAT DOES POLITICAL ECONOMY TELL US ABOUT ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT—AND VICE VERSA?
Keefer, P. E. (2004) · Annual Review of Political Science · doi:10.1146/annurev.polisci.7.012003.104846 · Cited by 104
Mixed‐Member Electoral Systems: A Definition and Typology
Shugart, M. S., & WATTENBERG, M. P. (2003) · doi:10.1093/019925768x.003.0002 · Cited by 104
Theoretical Foundations and Empirical Evaluations of Partisan Fairness in District-Based Democracies
Katz, J. N., King, G., & ROSENBLATT, E. (2019) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s000305541900056x · Cited by 103
Whom to Represent? Role Orientations of Legislators in Europe
Weßels, B. (1999) · doi:10.1093/0198296614.003.0010 · Cited by 101
The Timeline of Elections: A Comparative Perspective
Jennings, W., & Wlezien, C. B. (2015) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1111/ajps.12189 · Cited by 100
Party Fabrication: Constitutional Reform and the Rise of Thai Rak Thai
Hicken, A. D. (2006) · Journal of East Asian Studies · doi:10.1017/s159824080000463x · Cited by 101
Preferential Voting: Incidence and Effects
Karvonen, L. (2004) · International Political Science Review · doi:10.1177/0192512104041283 · Cited by 100
Why is there so Little Strategic Voting in Canadian Plurality Rule Elections?
Blais, A. (2002) · Political Studies · doi:10.1111/1467-9248.00378 · Cited by 99
The Borda Count and its real-world alternatives: Comparing scoring rules in Nauru and Slovenia
Fraenkel, J., & Grofman, B. (2014) · Australian Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1080/10361146.2014.900530 · Cited by 98
Endogenous Selection of Institutions and Their Exogenous Effects
Shvetsova, O. (2003) · Constitutional Political Economy · doi:10.1023/a:1024702528927 · Cited by 98
The Political Consequences of Germany's Mixed‐Member System: Personalization at the Grass Roots?
Klingemann, H., & Weßels, B. (2003) · doi:10.1093/019925768x.003.0014 · Cited by 98
Who votes for new parties? Economic voting, political ideology and populist attitudes
Marcos-Marné, H., Plaza-Colodro, C., & Freyburg, T. (2019) · West European Politics · doi:10.1080/01402382.2019.1608752 · Cited by 110
Political Parties, Clientelism, and Bureaucratic Reform
Cruz, C., & Keefer, P. E. (2015) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0010414015594627 · Cited by 96
Pappi, F. U., & Thurner, P. W. (2002) · European Journal of Political Research · doi:10.1111/1475-6765.00010 · Cited by 95
Proportional Representation, Majoritarian Legislatures, and Coalitional Voting
Indridason, I. (2011) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2011.00530.x · Cited by 94
Unintended Consequences: Anticipation of General Election Outcomes And Primary Election Divisiveness
Lazarus, J. (2005) · Legislative Studies Quarterly · doi:10.3162/036298005x201626 · Cited by 93
Licht, A. A. (2011) · Political Analysis · doi:10.1093/pan/mpq039 · Cited by 93
The Strategy and History of Electoral System Choice
Colomer, J. M. (2004) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1057/9780230522749_1 · Cited by 93
The European Parliament: one parliament, several modes of political representation on the ground?
Farrell, D. M., & Scully, R. (2010) · Journal of European Public Policy · doi:10.1080/13501760903465173 · Cited by 92
Reconceptualising Electoral Reform
Leyenaar, M., & Hazan, R. Y. (2011) · West European Politics · doi:10.1080/01402382.2011.555974 · Cited by 92
Birnir, J. K. (2004) · Studies in Comparative International Development · doi:10.1007/bf02686280 · Cited by 92
HOW DO ELECTORAL SYSTEMS AFFECT FISCAL POLICY? EVIDENCE FROM CANTONAL PARLIAMENTS, 1890-2000
Funk, P., & Gathmann, C. (2013) · Journal of the European Economic Association · doi:10.1111/jeea.12031 · Cited by 92
Protest voting in plurality elections: a theory of voter signaling
Kselman, D. M., & Niou, E. M. S. (2010) · Public Choice · doi:10.1007/s11127-010-9661-2 · Cited by 92
Crisis of Representation in Chile? The Institutional Connection
Siavelis, P. M. (2016) · Journal of Politics in Latin America · doi:10.1177/1866802x1600800303 · Cited by 102
Political parties and the transnational mobilisation of the emigrant vote
Østergaard‐Nielsen, E., & Ciornei, I. (2018) · West European Politics · doi:10.1080/01402382.2018.1528105 · Cited by 92
Electoral Control in New Democracies: The Perverse Incentives of Fluid Party Systems
Zielinski, J., Słomczyński, K. M., & Shabad, G. (2005) · World Politics · doi:10.1353/wp.2006.0006 · Cited by 90
Policy Positions, Issue Importance, and Party Competition in New Democracies
Tavits, M. (2007) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0010414006293857 · Cited by 90
From “Restricted” to “Besieged”: The Changing Nature of the Limits to Democracy in Colombia
Bejarano, A. M., & Pizarro, E. (2001) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511791116.009 · Cited by 93
The Social Origins of Electoral Volatility in Africa
Ferree, K. E. (2010) · British Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1017/s0007123410000244 · Cited by 88
Strategic, sincere, and heuristic voting under four election rules: an experimental study
der Straeten, K. V., Laslier, J., Sauger, N., & Blais, A. (2010) · Social Choice and Welfare · doi:10.1007/s00355-010-0448-7 · Cited by 88
The Decline of Party Mobilization
WATTENBERG, M. P. (2002) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/0199253099.003.0004 · Cited by 86
Strategic Ticket Splitting and the Personal Vote in Mixed-Member Electoral Systems
Moser, R. G., & Scheiner, E. (2005) · Legislative Studies Quarterly · doi:10.3162/036298005x201545 · Cited by 87
Split-ticket voting in German Federal elections, 1953–90: an example of sophisticated balloting?
Schoen, H. (1999) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/s0261-3794(99)00023-2 · Cited by 86
Anagol, S., & Fujiwara, T. (2016) · Journal of Political Economy · doi:10.1086/686746 · Cited by 80
Dissatisfied Democrats or Retrospective Voters?
Benton, A. L. (2005) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0010414004273856 · Cited by 86
Democracy without Competition in Japan
Scheiner, E. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511610660 · Cited by 90
Moderating Political Extremism: Single Round vs. Runoff Elections under Plurality RulePreprint
Tabellini, G., & Bordignon, M. (2009) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1360897 · Cited by 86
Social cleavages and political dealignment in contemporary Chile, 1995–2009
Bargsted, M., & Somma, N. M. (2013) · Party Politics · doi:10.1177/1354068813514865 · Cited by 85
Leading the Party: Coordination, Direction, and Communication
Dewan, T., & Myatt, D. P. (2006) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055407070451 · Cited by 81
Musil, P. A. (2014) · South European Society & Politics · doi:10.1080/13608746.2014.968981 · Cited by 84
Duverger's Law and the Study of Electoral Systems
Benoit, K. R. (2006) · French Politics · doi:10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200092 · Cited by 84
Candidate Recruitment and Selection in Latin America: A Framework for Analysis
Siavelis, P. M., & Morgenstern, S. (2008) · Latin American Politics and Society · doi:10.1111/j.1548-2456.2008.00029.x · Cited by 84
The Power of Parties: Evidence from Close Municipal Elections in Norway
Fiva, J. H., Folke, O., & Sørensen, R. J. (2017) · Scandinavian Journal of Economics · doi:10.1111/sjoe.12229 · Cited by 84
Supplementing the effective number of parties
Taagepera, R. (1999) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/s0261-3794(99)00020-7 · Cited by 84
Metadata
- Authors
- Cox, G. W.
- Affiliations
- University of California San Diego (US)
- Corresponding author
- Cox, Gary W.
- ORCID
- Cox, Gary W.
- Venue
- Cambridge University Press eBooks
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press
- Published
- 1997-03-28
- OpenAlex
- W4251366449
- Cited by
- 2,281
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 87 · 2025: 119 · 2024: 74 · 2023: 56 · 2022: 68 · 2021: 78 · 2020: 116 · 2019: 125 · 2018: 102 · 2017: 96 · 2016: 105 · 2015: 93 · 2014: 82 · 2013: 93 · 2012: 62
- FWCI
- 75.68
- Type
- book
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Cambridge University Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Electoral Systems and Political Participation
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Game Theory and Voting Systems
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Political Theory and Democracy
- Keywords
- electoral systems, electoral law, strategic voting, coordination problems, strategic coordination, game-theoretic model, voting behavior, representative democracy
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
