The causal role of smoking in anxiety and depression: a Mendelian randomization analysis of the HUNT study
Open accessAbstract
Background: Cigarette smoking is strongly associated with mental illness but the causal direction of the association is uncertain. We investigated the causal relationship between smoking and symptoms of anxiety and depression in the Norwegian HUNT study using the rs1051730 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) variant located in the nicotine acetylcholine receptor gene cluster on chromosome 15 as an instrumental variable for smoking phenotypes. Among smokers, this SNP is robustly associated with smoking quantity and nicotine dependence. Method: In total, 53 601 participants were genotyped for the rs1051730 SNP and provided information on smoking habits and symptoms of anxiety and depression using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS). Results: Self-reported smoking was positively associated with the prevalence of both anxiety and depression, and the measured polymorphism was positively associated with being a current smoker and the number of cigarettes smoked in current smokers. In the sample as a whole, risk of anxiety increased with each affected T allele [odds ratio (OR) 1.06, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.02–1.09, p = 0.002] but there was no association with depression (p = 0.31). However, we found no clear association of the polymorphism with either anxiety (OR 1.03, 95% CI 0.97–1.09, p = 0.34) or depression (OR 1.02, 95% CI 0.95–1.09, p = 0.62) among smokers. Conclusions: As there was no association of the smoking-related rs1051730 SNP with anxiety and depression among smokers, the results suggest that smoking is not a cause of anxiety and depression.
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MR studies using single SNPs found no evidence for a causal association between smoking and primary depression or anxiety.
“Using this genetic instrument, analyses in the Norwegian HUNT study (N=53,601) 46 and the Copenhagen General Population Study and City Heart Study (N=63,296) 47 found no evidence for a causal association between smoking with primary depression or anxiety.”
From A meta-review of "lifestyle psychiatry": the role of exercise, smoking, diet and sleep in the prevention and treatment of mental disorders (2020) · cites this paper as [46]
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- Authors
- Bjørngaard, J. H., Gunnell, D., Elvestad, M. B., Smith, G. D., Skorpen, F., Krokan, H., Vatten, L., & Romundstad, P.
- Affiliations
- University of Bristol (GB)
- Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NO)
- Venue
- Psychological Medicine
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2012-06-12
- Volume
- 43
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 711-719
- ISSN
- 0033-2917 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-8978
- OpenAlex
- W2103822713
- Cited by
- 71
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 5
- FWCI
- 4.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Licence
- Locations
- Psychological Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- BIBSYS Brage (BIBSYS (Norway)) (acceptedVersion)
- NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Explore Bristol Research (submittedVersion)
- Bristol Research (University of Bristol) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute for Health and Care Research (NF-SI-0512-10068)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Smoking Behavior and Cessation
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic Associations and Epidemiology
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Cardiac Health and Mental Health
- Keywords
- cigarette smoking, anxiety, depression, causal inference, rs1051730, chromosome 15, nicotine dependence, smoking quantity, HUNT study, instrumental variables
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Alleles, Anxiety Disorders, Chromosomes, Human, Pair 15, Depressive Disorder, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Norway, Pregnancy, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Receptors, Nicotinic, Smoking, Causality, Body Mass Index, Prevalence, Logistic Models, Genetic Predisposition to Disease, Polymorphism, Single Nucleotide, Young Adult, Mendelian Randomization Analysis, Self Report
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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