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BRIEF COMMUNICATION Parasuicide, depression and the anticipation of positive and negative future experiences
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Previous research has shown that parasuicides' view of the future is characterized by an absence of anticipation of positive experiences rather than the presence of anticipation of negative experiences. The present study aimed to replicate this finding and examine whether it would also be found in parasuicides who were not depressed. METHOD: Depressed parasuicides (N = 27), non-depressed parasuicides (N = 17) and matched controls (N = 34) were assessed on their anticipation of future positive and negative experiences using an adapted fluency paradigm, where they were given a set time to generate future positive and negative anticipated experiences. RESULTS: Consistent with previous findings, parasuicides showed an overall reduced anticipation of positive experiences and no overall increased anticipation of negative experiences. However, the parasuicides did show evidence of increased negative anticipation for the immediate future. The results for depressed and non-depressed parasuicides were essentially the same. CONCLUSION: Lack of positive anticipation in the absence of increased negative anticipation is a feature of parasuicide. Although this lack of positive anticipation can occur in depression, it appears to be an independent feature of parasuicide.
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“Reasons for living [46], attainable positive future thinking [47,48], adaptive goal pursuit [49], belongingness [12] or connectedness [50] are MMs as they are thought to buffer against the emergence of suicidal ideation and intent”
From The integrated motivational–volitional model of suicidal behaviour (2018) · cites this paper as [47]
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The integrated motivational–volitional model of suicidal behaviour
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“The significant effect of BHS on positive future fluency confirms MacLeod et al.’s (1993) finding that there is a relationship between positive future fluency and hopelessness.”
BackgroundHopelessness and positive and negative future thinking in parasuicide
MacLeod, A. K., Tata, P., Tyrer, P., Schmidt, U., Davidson, K., & Thompson, S. (2005) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466505x35704 · Cited by 175
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“The results from this study provide longitudinal support for the lack of positive expectations as a predictor of future suicidal behavior, whereas previous studies had only linked lack of positive expectations with past suicide attempts (e.g., MacLeod et al., 1997).”
Rasmussen, S. A., Fraser, L., Gotz, M., MacHale, S., Mackie, R., Masterton, G., McConachie, S., & O'Connor, R. C. (2010) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466509x415735 · Cited by 160
“…shown that it is impaired positive future thinking, rather than increased negative future thinking which is detrimental to psychological well being (e.g. MacLeod et al. , 1997; O’Connor, Connery, & Cheyne, 2000; O’Connor, O’Connor, O’Connor, Smallwood, & Miles, 2004; O’Connor et al. , 2007).”
Backgroundvan Beek, W., Berghuis, H., Kerkhof, A. J. F. M., & Beekman, A. T. F. (2011) · Time & Society · doi:10.1177/0961463x10373960 · Cited by 162
“As MacLeod et al. (1993, 1997) found on several occasions, parasuicidal people are impaired in their ability to generate positive future thoughts.”
BackgroundWilliams, J. M. G., Van der Does, A. J. W., Barnhofer, T., Crane, C., & Segal, Z. S. (2008) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-006-9105-y · Cited by 158
“A series of studies by MacLeod and colleagues has shown that an important mechanism underlying hopelessness and pronounced in parasuicide patients is the inability to generate positive events that might occur in the future (MacLeod & Byrne, 1996; MacLeod & Cropley, 1995; MacLeod et al., 1997; MacLeod et al., 1993; O’C…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialCognitions in bipolar affective disorder and unipolar depression: imagining suicide
Hales, S. A., Deeprose, C., Goodwin, G. M., & Holmes, E. A. (2011) · Bipolar Disorders · doi:10.1111/j.1399-5618.2011.00954.x · Cited by 157
Suicidal Behavior as a Cry of Pain: Test of a Psychological Model
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Self-citationHopelessness and future thinking in parasuicide: The role of perfectionism
Hunter, E., & O’Connor, R. C. (2003) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466503322528900 · Cited by 140
“, 2000), when compared with controls or depressed individuals who are not suicidal, are impaired in their ability to generate positive thoughts for the future but do not differ in terms of the number of negative thoughts that they are worried about (MacLeod et al., 1997).”
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Self-citationVilhauer, J. S., Young, S., Kealoha, C., Borrmann, J., IsHak, W. W., Rapaport, M. H., Hartoonian, N., & Mirocha, J. (2011) · CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics · doi:10.1111/j.1755-5949.2011.00235.x · Cited by 129
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“Williams [35] employed an analogue experimental design to investigate whether a recognized suicide risk factor, positive future thinking (impaired positive future thinking is an established correlate of suicide risk [36-38]), was”
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“Moreover, anxiety seems to be associated with an increase in negative future MTT but not fewer positive projections (Andersson, Kyrre Svalastog, Kaldo, & Sarkohi, 2007; MacLeod & Byrne, 1996; MacLeod et al., 1997).”
BackgroundInfluentialHopelessness: The role of depression, future directed thinking and cognitive vulnerability
O’Connor, R. C., Connery, H., & Cheyne, W. M. (2000) · Psychology Health & Medicine · doi:10.1080/713690188 · Cited by 119
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“…literature on positive future thinking, which has consistently demonstrated that suicidal individuals generate lower levels of positive future thinking than controls (e.g., Hunter & O’Connor, 2003; MacLeod et al., 1997).2 However, over the subsequent 15 months, the reverse relationship is apparent.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialWell-being and positive future thinking for the self versus others
MacLeod, A. K., & Conway, C. (2007) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930601109507 · Cited by 85
“Those who have recently engaged in an episode of parasuicide may reasonably be considered to be among those lowest in wellbeing and have been found to demonstrate a clear reduction in positive future thinking for themselves (e.g., MacLeod et al., 1997).”
BackgroundSelf-citationVilhauer, J. S., Cortes, J., Moali, N., Chung, S., Mirocha, J., & IsHak, W. W. (2013) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 84
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“…has shown that the presence of negative cognitions about the future is not functionally equivalent to the absence of positive future cognitions (MacLeod et al., 1997; Hunter & O’Connor, 2003; O’Connor, Connery, & Cheyne, 2000; O’Connor, 2003): Goal reengagement may be functionally equivalent…”
BackgroundLess Positive or More Negative? Future-Directed Thinking in Mild to Moderate Depression
Bjärehed, J., Sarkohi, A., & Andersson, G. (2009) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506070902966926 · Cited by 76
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“The future thinking task (FTT; MacLeod et al., 1997) requires participants to think of potential future experiences across three time periods * the next week (including today), the next year and the next five to ten years.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPositive life goals and plans in parasuicide
Vincent, P. J., Boddana, P., & MacLeod, A. K. (2004) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.394 · Cited by 72
Self-citationThe Pschology of Suicidal Behaviour
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“Consistent with other such studies (e.g., MacLeod et al., 1997), this did not represent a consecutive sample; rather it reflects the practical limitations of recruiting via a general hospital.”
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“Nor does positive future thinking appear to be an artifact of mood, as the impairment in positive future thinking is not accounted for by severity of depressive symptoms (MacLeod et al., 1997; Hunter & O’Connor, 2003; O’Connor, Connery, & Cheyne, 2000).”
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“Indeed, depressed individuals anticipate fewer positive events than do clinically anxious people (MacLeod et al., 1997b; see also MacLeod, Pankhania, Lee, & Mitchell, 1997a).”
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“Consistent with other such studies (e.g., MacLeod et al., 1997), this did not represent a consecutive sample; rather it reflects the practical limitations of recruiting via a general hospital.”
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“Consistent with previous research (MacLeod et al., 1997), the time periods for positive and negative future thinking are aggregated to yield total positive (PFT) and negative future thinking (NFT) scores.”
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“The Future Thinking Task (FTT) was designed to specifically target valence differences in individuals’ cognitions about the future (MacLeod et al., 1993, 1997).”
BackgroundThe Role of Perfectionism and Autobiographical Memory in a Sample of Parasuicide Patients
Rasmussen, S. A., O’Connor, R. C., & Brodie, D. (2008) · Crisis · doi:10.1027/0227-5910.29.2.64 · Cited by 54
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“[5] addressed the limitations postulated by the previous study by differentiating between depressed and nondepressed parasuicidal individuals in examining whether hopelessness or depression were significant predictors of suicidality.”
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“In accord with this assumption, Pham and Taylor (1999) found that students who engaged in process-related imagery (studying for an exam) spent most time preparing for a midterm and achieved the best grades, whereas participants who exclusively engaged in outcome-related imagery (receiving a good grade) prepared least…”
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“Depressed individuals tend to favor negative information and recall fewer positive experiences (41).”
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“For example, relative to healthy people, anxious people anticipated more negative future experiences, whereas depressed or parasuicidal people anticipated less positive future experiences, but did not anticipate more future negative events (MacLeod and Byrne, 1996; MacLeod et al., 1997).”
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“This is in line with the expectation that anxiety, in which worry and uncertainty in regard to the future may be considered characteristic, and which partly overlaps with stress conceptually, should exhibit elevated scores on the FN. Relatedly, O’Connor and colleagues found that perceived stress was associated with ge…”
The relationship between positive future thinking, brooding, defeat and entrapment
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“As the majority of research on positive future thinking has been conducted in the context of low mood (MacLeod et al., 1997; O’Connor et al., 2008; Williams et al., 2008), all participants were subject to a negative mood induction before the defeat manipulation in Study two.”
BackgroundDevelopment and validation of the openness to the future scale: a prospective protective factor
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Self-citationFuture-Oriented Constructs and Their Role in Suicidal Ideation and Enactment
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Self-citationFuture Thinking and Depression
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“, which was based on depressed but physically healthy participants.(15,36) Both depressed groups generated significantly more negative future thinking and fewer positive future thinking completions compared with the nondepressed pain group and the control participants.”
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“A study reported that individuals who exhibit suicidal behaviors also show a lack of positive expectations for the future (MacLeod et al. 1997).”
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“Among cognitive processes that have been linked with suicidal thoughts and behaviors (STBs), positive future thinking (PFT) has consistently been shown to be a protective factor (Cha et al., under review; Hunter & O’Connor, 2003; MacLeod et al., 1993, 1997, 1998, 2005; O’Connor et al., 2007).”
The Effects of Chronic Illness on Aspirations and Subjective Wellbeing
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“, who described how depressed participants exhibit a lack of positive anticipation of future experiences as a result of continuous frustrations caused by longstanding and unresolved problems.(19) For the researchers, being involved in this study also contributed to developing compassion and understanding for patients…”
BackgroundTantalizing Fantasies: Positive Imagery Induces Negative Mood in Individuals High in Fear of Failure
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An empirical investigation of suicide schemas in individuals with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
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The capacity to consent to treatment is altered in suicidal patients
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“Indeed, suicide attempters display impaired decision-making abilities [15], lower problem-solving leading to feelings of entrapment [16, 17], and lack of future positive thinking [18].”
BackgroundDepression Accompanied by Hopelessness Is Associated with More Negative Future Thinking
Han, H., & Midorikawa, A. (2024) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare12121208 · Cited by 9
Cha, C. B., Nam, R. J., Bell, K., Goger, P., Parvez, N., Pollak, O. H., Robinaugh, D. J., Sanghvi, D. E., & Schacter, D. L. (2024) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2024.2384038 · Cited by 10
“…pointing to future thinking deficits driven by poor positive future thinking (vs. greater negative future thinking) among suicidal individuals (MacLeod et al., 1993, 1997, 1998; O’Connor et al., 2007, 2008) and the theorized protective role of positive future thinking against the transition…”
The Measurement of Positive Attitudes: The Glass is Half Full
Fisher, L. B., & Overholser, J. C. (2013) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-013-0173-0 · Cited by 9
van Heeringen, K., Godfrin, K. A., & Bijttebier, S. (2011) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119998556.ch9 · Cited by 10
Guidelines for managing self‐harm in a forensic setting
Gough, K. (2005) · The British Journal of Forensic Practice · doi:10.1108/14636646200500009 · Cited by 8
Clinical and electrophysiological correlates of hopelessness in the context of suicide risk✰
Ballard, E. D., Nischal, R. P., Burton, C. R., GREENSTEIN, D. K., Anderson, G. E., Waldman, L. R., Zarate, C. A., & Gilbert, J. R. (2024) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2023.12.002 · Cited by 6
Pollak, O. H., Shin, K. E., Baroni, A., Gerson, R. S., Bell, K., Tezanos, K. M., Fernandes, S. N., Robinaugh, D. J., Schacter, D. L., Spirito, A., et al. (2023) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-023-02219-3 · Cited by 6
Future‐Oriented Group Training for suicidal individuals: A randomized controlled trial
Jaegere, E. D., Stas, P., van Heeringen, K., Dumon, E., van Landschoot, R., & Portzky, G. (2023) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12944 · Cited by 7
Suicidal Behavior: The Power of Prospection
MacLeod, A. K. (2016) · The Wiley Handbook of Positive Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/9781118468197.ch20 · Cited by 5
Self-citationKöse, G., Evans, J. J., & O’Connor, R. C. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1574315 · Cited by 5
“…for example, ‘I am worried about getting the results of a test next month’) is associated with suicide risk (i.e., suicidal thoughts and suicidal behaviours) independent of depression, verbal fluency or cognitive performance (MacLeod et al., 1997; O’Connor et al., 2000; Sargalska et al., 2011).”
Metadata
- Authors
- MacLEOD, A. K., PANKHANIA, B., LEE, M., & MITCHELL, D.
- Affiliations
- Royal Holloway University of London (GB)
- ORCID
- MacLEOD, A. K.
- Venue
- Psychological Medicine
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 1997-07
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 973-977
- ISSN
- 0033-2917 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-8978
- OpenAlex
- W56376859
- Cited by
- 140
- References
- 4
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 1 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 2.64
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Suicide and Self-Harm Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health via Writing
- Keywords
- parasuicide, depression, replication
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Analysis of Variance, Cross-Sectional Studies, Depression, Female, Forecasting, Humans, Male, Suicide, Attempted, Thinking, Case-Control Studies, Self-Injurious Behavior
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