The DOI matches its Crossref record; 207 of the 209 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
To give and to give not: The behavioral ecology of human food transfers
Abstract
The transfer of food among group members is a ubiquitous feature of small-scale forager and forager-agricultural populations. The uniqueness of pervasive sharing among humans, especially among unrelated individuals, has led researchers to evaluate numerous hypotheses about the adaptive functions and patterns of sharing in different ecologies. This article attempts to organize available cross-cultural evidence pertaining to several contentious evolutionary models: kin selection, reciprocal altruism, tolerated scrounging, and costly signaling. Debates about the relevance of these models focus primarily on the extent to which individuals exert control over the distribution of foods they acquire, and the extent to which donors receive food or other fitness-enhancing benefits in return for shares given away. Each model can explain some of the variance in sharing patterns within groups, and so generalizations that ignore or deny the importance of any one model may be misleading. Careful multivariate analyses and cross-cultural comparisons of food transfer patterns are therefore necessary tools for assessing aspects of the sexual division of labor, human life history evolution, and the evolution of the family. This article also introduces a framework for better understanding variation in sharing behavior across small-scale traditional societies. I discuss the importance of resource ecology and the degree of coordination in acquisition activities as a key feature that influences sharing behavior.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Food sharing between unrelated individuals outside the mating context is rare but has been reported for humans, vampire bats, chimpanzees and bonobos [13,46,48,49,52].”
From Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees (2014) · cites this paper as [46]
In the citing paper
“This link between food sharing and oxytocin found in chimpanzees may also be relevant for humans [70], where pro-social behaviour has often been linked to food sharing and provisioning [46,81,82].”
From Food sharing is linked to urinary oxytocin levels and bonding in related and unrelated wild chimpanzees (2014) · cites this paper as [46]
In the citing paper
“Many theories explaining various types of cooperation have been proposed in biology and economics (Fehr & Fischbacher, 2003; Gurven, 2004) but a theoretical explanation of unconditional altruism (de W ned as bene W ting others at a cost to oneself, Wilson, 1976) has remained elusive to date.”
From Altruistic behavior as a costly signal of general intelligence (2007) · cites this paper as Gurven, 2004
In the citing paper
“The statement that altruism may serve as a costly signal has received theoretical support in anthropology, biology, and economics (e.g., Boone, 1998; Gintis, Smith, & Bowles, 2001; Gurven, 2004; Lotem, Fishman, & Stone, 2003; Roberts, 1998).”
From Altruistic behavior as a costly signal of general intelligence (2007) · cites this paper as Gurven, 2004
Citations
Cites
Axelrod, R., & Hamilton, W. D. (1981) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.7466396 · Cited by 20,065
The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I
Hamilton, W. D. (1964) · Journal of Theoretical Biology · doi:10.1016/0022-5193(64)90038-4 · Cited by 15,725
A Theory of Fairness, Competition, and Cooperation
Fehr, E., & Schmidt, K. M. (1999) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.1162/003355399556151 · Cited by 11,264
The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism
Trivers, R. L. (1971) · The Quarterly Review of Biology · doi:10.1086/406755 · Cited by 11,010
Becker, G. S. (1991) · doi:10.4159/9780674020665 · Cited by 10,565
The Adapted mind : evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture
Barkow, J. H., Cosmides, L., & Tooby, J. (1992) · Cited by 5,222
On aims and methods of ethology
Tinbergen, N. (1963) · Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie · doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1963.tb01161.x · Cited by 4,551
Cooperation and Punishment in Public Goods Experiments
Fehr, E., & Gächter, S. (2000) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.90.4.980 · Cited by 4,547
The Gift: Forms and Functions of Exchange in Archaic Societies.
Tumin, M. M., Mauss, M., Cunnison, I., & Evans‐Pritchard, E. E. (1956) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2088549 · Cited by 4,071
Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach
Adams, J. M., Krebs, J. R., & Davies, N. B. (1992) · Journal of Animal Ecology · doi:10.2307/5530 · Cited by 3,919
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 401–500 of 582
Theories of the evolution of cooperative behaviour: A critical survey plus some new results
Rowthorn, R. E., Guzmán, R. A., & Rodríguez‐Sickert, C. (2009) · Munich Personal RePEc Archive (Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich) · Cited by 3
Social Incentives and Human EvolutionPreprint
Barradale, N. J. (2009) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1520206 · Cited by 3
Valera, L. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-0929-4_168 · Cited by 3
Meat acquisition skill and male reproductive success in Guinea baboonsPreprint
O’Hearn, W. J., Pesco, F. D., Mundry, R., & Fischer, J. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.09.17.613504 · Cited by 3
Food Sharing and Altruism: Reconstructing Behavioural Evolution
Rebato, E. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-93600-6_4 · Cited by 2
Evolutionary psychology and resource-sharing laws
Guttentag, M. D. (2023) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2023.01.011 · Cited by 2
Boog, D. A., Egas, M., & Ploeger, A. (2024) · Evolutionary Psychological Science · doi:10.1007/s40806-024-00415-1 · Cited by 2
Through the lens of adaptationism: Commentary on Baumard & André
Cosmides, L. (2025) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2025.106741 · Cited by 2
The Evolutionary Bases of Deontic Justice
Folger, R. G., & Skarlicki, D. P. (2008) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-60752-897-520251003 · Cited by 2
Food altruism in human beings: facts and factors
Rebato, E. (2015) · doi:10.3920/978-90-8686-820-9_27 · Cited by 2
Why do the chimpanzees of the Taï Forest share meat? The value of bartering, begging and hunting
Gomes, C. M., Mundry, R., & Boesch, C. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108674218.021 · Cited by 2
Stochasticity in economic losses increases the value of reputation in indirect reciprocity
dos Santos, M., Placì, S., & Wedekind, C. (2015) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep18182 · Cited by 2
Hwæt!: adaptive benefits of public displays of generosity and bravery in Beowulf
Rapaport, L. G., Paul, C. E., & Gerard, P. D. (2016) · Behaviour · doi:10.1163/1568539x-00003348 · Cited by 2
Svobodová, E. (2012) · Interdisciplinaria Archaeologica - Natural Sciences in Archaeology · doi:10.24916/iansa.2012.1.9 · Cited by 2
Robustness assessment of the ‘cooperation under resource pressure’ (CURP) model
Zurro, D., Ahedo, V., Pereda, M., Álvarez, M., Godino, I. B. I., Caro, J., Santos, J. I., & Galán, J. M. (2017) · Hunter Gatherer Research · doi:10.3828/hgr.2017.20 · Cited by 2
Kumar, V., & Campbell, R. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197600122.003.0001 · Cited by 2
21. The Challenges of Evolutionary Biodemography and the Example of Menopause
Tuljapurkar, S. D. (2024) · Open Book Publishers · doi:10.11647/obp.0251.21 · Cited by 2
18. Sociality, Food Sharing, and the Evolution of Life Histories
Lee, R. D., & Boe, C. (2024) · Open Book Publishers · doi:10.11647/obp.0251.18 · Cited by 2
On Trade-offs and Communal Breeding The Behavioural Ecology of Agta ForagersPreprint
Page, A. E. (2021) · Thesis Commons (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31237/osf.io/gv28h · Cited by 3
Williams, A. C., & Hill, L. J. (2018) · International Journal of Tryptophan Research · doi:10.1177/1178646918802289 · Cited by 2
de Barra, M. (2016) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/7d8zk · Cited by 2
Generational Economics in a Changing WorldPreprint
Lee, R. D., & Mason, A. W. (2009) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1506132 · Cited by 2
Stability Constrains how Populations Spread Risk in a Model of Food ExchangePreprint
O’Dwyer, J. P. (2019) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/73y26 · Cited by 2
Brown, G. R., & Laland, K. N. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198908203.002.0006 · Cited by 2
Kumar, V., & Campbell, R. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197600122.003.0002 · Cited by 1
White, P. A., Bertola, L. D., Kariuki, K., & de Iongh, H. H. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0308068 · Cited by 1
Prosocial reputation and stress among contemporary hunter-gatherers: the Hadza case
Fedurek, P., Aktipis, A., Cronk, L., Danel, D. P., Lacroix, L. P., Lehmann, J., Mabulla, I. A., Makambi, J. E., & Berbesque, J. C. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-72238-w · Cited by 1
Twenty Years Later: Growth Rates and Life Histories in Twenty‐Two Small‐Scale Societies
Kramer, K. L. (2025) · American Journal of Human Biology · doi:10.1002/ajhb.70122 · Cited by 1
Out-group/in-group personal moral dilemmas in the Kogi worldview
Cáceres, R. G. A., & Serrano, J. F. M. (2025) · Journal of Cultural Cognitive Science · doi:10.1007/s41809-025-00190-w · Cited by 1
Fowers, B. J. (2026) · doi:10.1093/9780197506028.001.0001 · Cited by 1
Evolution and Human Uniqueness
Sterelny, K. (2026) · doi:10.1093/9780197834879.001.0001 · Cited by 1
EVALUACIÓN DE LA CONSISTENCIA DEL COMPORTAMIENTO PROSOCIAL EN DOS JUEGOS EXPERIMENTALES
Vázquez, L. C., & Velásco, C. S. (2012) · LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas) · Cited by 1
Scaggs, S. A., Fulk, K. S., Glass, D. J., & Ziker, J. P. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-58993-0_10 · Cited by 1
Adding culture and context improves evolutionary theorizing about human cognition
McNamara, R. A., & Fischer, R. D. (2018) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x1800047x · Cited by 1
CÉREBROS QUE PUNEM: UMA REVISÃO CRÍTICA DA NEUROCIÊNCIA DA PUNIÇÃO
Horta, R. D. L. E. (2018) · Revista Brasileira de Políticas Públicas · doi:10.5102/rbpp.v8i2.5321 · Cited by 1
The Amplifying Role of Need in Giving Decisions
Danvers, A. F., Hackman, J., & Hruschka, D. J. (2018) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2018.11.002 · Cited by 1
Hominin forager technology, food sharing, and diet breadth
Aoki, K., & Wakano, J. Y. (2022) · Theoretical Population Biology · doi:10.1016/j.tpb.2022.01.003 · Cited by 1
Compartir por altruismo o equidad: Prosocialidad según el nivel socioeconómico
Rivera, P. E. D., Zaragoza-Romero, G. A., & Loving, R. D. (2023) · Revista Digital Internacional de Psicología y Ciencia Social · doi:10.22402/j.rdipycs.unam.e.8.2.2022.478 · Cited by 1
Cultural Innovation Triggers Inequality in a Sharing Economy
Tzafestas, E. (2023) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-31183-3_13 · Cited by 1
Of Game Keepers, Opportunism, and Conservation
HAMES, R. B. (2023) · Conflict, Environment, and Social Complexity · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-37503-3_17 · Cited by 1
Alva, D. P., Andrews, T. M., & Delton, A. W. (2024) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.13060 · Cited by 1
Brown, G. R., & Laland, K. N. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198908203.003.0005 · Cited by 1
Sznycer, D., & Bates, T. C. (2025) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2025.106754 · Cited by 1
Food seeking and food sharing under uncertainty
Aharonov‐Majar, E., & Suleiman, R. (2019) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x18001887 · Cited by 1
Caro, J., & Bortolini, E. (2018) · Hunter Gatherer Research · doi:10.3828/hgr.2018.6 · Cited by 1
Delton, A. W. (2022) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x21001217 · Cited by 1
Social Cognition Part II: Social Learning and Cooperation
Range, F., & Marshall‐Pescini, S. (2022) · Fascinating life sciences · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-98411-3_8 · Cited by 1
Relation Between the Public and the Private and Evolution of Food Sharing
Tzafestas, E. (2023) · Springer proceedings in complexity · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-34920-1_14 · Cited by 1
Brown, G. R., & Laland, K. N. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198908203.003.0004 · Cited by 1
Skin colour, pigmentation and the perceived health of human faces
Stephen, I. D. (2009) · St Andrews Research Repository (St Andrews Research Repository) · Cited by 1
Reciprocity, Nepotism or Costly Signaling – Evidence from Mobile Phone Money Transfers in Nairobi
Eriksson, M. M. (2010) · Lund University Publications Student Papers (Lund University) · Cited by 1
Evolution of altruism: Exploring adaptive landscapes
Spichtig, M. (2013) · UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) · Cited by 1
Driscoll, C. (2011) · Biology & Philosophy · doi:10.1007/s10539-011-9266-2 · Cited by 1
Essays in Social Status and Finance
Barradale, N. J. (2010) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 1
Atkisson, C. J., & Finn, K. R. (2020) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2011.12817 · Cited by 1
Refaie, N., & Mishra, S. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-19650-3_2273 · Cited by 1
Brown, G. R., & Laland, K. N. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198908203.003.0007 · Cited by 1
Stibbard‐Hawkes, D. N. E., Mabulla, I. A., Endeko, E. S., & Whittaker, L. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.7259638 · Cited by 1
Hungry for Money: On the Fungibility of Financial and Caloric ResourcesPreprint
Briers, B., Pandelaere, M., Dewitte, S., & Warlop, L. (2006) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.880011 · Cited by 1
Sexual selection and trust games
Stirrat, M. (2010) · St Andrews Research Repository (St Andrews Research Repository)
Cultural Algorithms: Less is More
Almirall, E., & Cortés, U. (2010) · Frontiers in artificial intelligence and applications · doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-643-0-19
Almirall, E. (2010) · LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas)
Our Origins: How and Why We Do and Do Not Differ from Primates
Kappeler, P. M. (2010) · The frontiers collection · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-13968-0_1
de Almeida, A. F. A. (2015) · Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT)
Suleiman, R., Aharonov‐Majar, E., & Luzon, P. (2011) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1955813
Alvard, M. (2009)
Le don et l’alliance dans l’évolution sociale
Morin, O. (2019) · Presses universitaires de Paris Nanterre eBooks · doi:10.4000/books.pupo.15375
The Cultural Science of Consumption: Brains, Networks, and Identities
Herrmann‐Pillath, C. (2010) · Cultural Science Journal · doi:10.5334/csci.26
Sharing and Exchanging Food in Northwestern Namibia
Schnegg, M. (2015)
Social Conventions, Institutions, and Human
Wyman, E., & Hannes Rakoczy, B. (2011)
Human Diversity at the Individual and Population Levels, and Societal Hierarchies
Dubreuil, B. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-420190-3.00029-6
How did altruism and reciprocity evolve in humans?: Perspectives from experiments on chimpanzees
Yamamoto, S., & Tanaka, M. (2009)
Humans and Harems? Review of Out of Eden: The surprising consequences of polygamy by David Barash
Driscoll, C. (2017) · Biology & Philosophy · doi:10.1007/s10539-017-9573-3
Herrmann‐Pillath, C. (2013) · Edward Elgar Publishing eBooks · doi:10.4337/9781782548362.00014
Troncarelli, L. T. (2018) · Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (Universidade de São Paulo) · doi:10.11606/d.106.2018.tde-29052018-144931
The Importance of Nonhuman Primates in Waorani Communities of the Ecuadorian Amazon
Levin, M. F. (2020) · Ethnobiology · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-27504-4_14
Social Network Ties and Symbolic Management
Westphal, J. D., & Park, S. H. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198792055.003.0006
Symbolic Management of Policy and Structure
Westphal, J., & Park, S. H. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198792055.003.0002
Group-Level Social and Psychological Processes that Support Symbolic Management
Westphal, J., & Park, S. H. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198792055.003.0008
The Social Psychological Dynamics of Symbolic Management
Westphal, J., & Park, S. H. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198792055.003.0009
Social Influence Processes in Leader–Stakeholder Relations
Westphal, J. D., & Park, S. H. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198792055.003.0007
Conclusions, Future Research Directions, and Policy Implications
Westphal, J. D., & Park, S. H. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198792055.003.0010
Symbolic Management of Process
Westphal, J. D., & Park, S. H. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198792055.003.0003
The Multi-Stage Social Influence Process in CEO–Board Relationships
Westphal, J. D., & Park, S. H. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198792055.003.0005
Symbolic Management beyond the Firm Level
Westphal, J. D., & Park, S. H. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198792055.003.0004
Introduction to the Symbolic Management Perspective
Westphal, J. D., & Park, S. H. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198792055.003.0001
The structure of multiplex networks predicts play in economic games and real-world cooperationPreprint
Atkisson, C. J., & Mulder, M. B. (2020) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2012.07669 · Cited by 1
Cáceres, R. G. A. (2021) · Revista Guillermo de Ockham · doi:10.21500/22563202.4799
Status and Prosociality in Egalitarian Societies
Garfield, Z. H. (2012) · Lincoln (University of Nebraska)
(2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119118206.biblio
Kumar, V., & Campbell, R. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197600122.003.0004
Kumar, V., & Campbell, R. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197600122.003.0007
Kumar, V., & Campbell, R. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197600122.003.0010
Kumar, V., & Campbell, R. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197600122.003.0012
Kumar, V., & Campbell, R. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197600122.003.0011
Kumar, V., & Campbell, R. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197600122.003.0005
Metadata
- Authors
- Gurven, M.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Santa Barbara (US)
- Corresponding author
- Gurven, Michael
- ORCID
- Gurven, Michael
- Venue
- Behavioral and Brain Sciences
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2004-08
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 543-559
- ISSN
- 0140-525X (ISSN-L)
- 1469-1825
- OpenAlex
- W2122226023
- Cited by
- 582
- References
- 209
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 36 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 41 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 41 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 29 · 2017: 28 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 39 · 2014: 26 · 2013: 27 · 2012: 30
- FWCI
- 15.95
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Behavioral and Brain Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Evolutionary Game Theory and Cooperation
- Social Sciences › Cultural Studies › Language and cultural evolution
- Keywords
- food sharing, food transfers, kin selection, reciprocal altruism, costly signaling, cross-cultural comparison, resource ecology, gender division of labor, life history evolution, evolution of the family, unrelated individuals, traditional society
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
