Cited by 11,010Evolutionary Game Theory and CooperationEvolutionary Psychology and Human BehaviorAnimal Behavior and Reproduction

The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism

Trivers, Robert L.·1971·The Quarterly Review of Biology

Abstract

A model is presented to account for the natural selection of what is termed reciprocally altruistic behavior. The model shows how selection can operate against the cheater (non-reciprocator) in the system. Three instances of altruistic behavior are discussed, the evolution of which the model can explain: (1) behavior involved in cleaning symbioses; (2) warning cries in birds; and (3) human reciprocal altruism. Regarding human reciprocal altruism, it is shown that the details of the psychological system that regulates this altruism can be explained by the model. Specifically, friendship, dislike, moralistic aggression, gratitude, sympathy, trust, suspicion, trustworthiness, aspects of guilt, and some forms of dishonesty and hypocrisy can be explained as important adaptations to regulate the altruistic system. Each individual human is seen as possessing altruistic and cheating tendencies, the expression of which is sensitive to developmental variables that were selected to set the tendencies at a balance appropriate to the local social and ecological environment.

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Crossref · 10.1086/406755

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Authors
Trivers, R. L.
Corresponding author
Trivers, Robert L.
Venue
The Quarterly Review of Biology
Published
1971-03
Volume
46
Issue
1
Pages
35-57
ISSN
  • 0033-5770 (ISSN-L)
  • 1539-7718
OpenAlex
W2167030552
Cited by
11,010
References
2
Citations by year
2026: 266 · 2025: 301 · 2024: 423 · 2023: 331 · 2022: 418 · 2021: 511 · 2020: 470 · 2019: 458 · 2018: 445 · 2017: 376 · 2016: 442 · 2015: 453 · 2014: 431 · 2013: 426 · 2012: 433
FWCI
50.24
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
The Quarterly Review of Biology (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Evolutionary Game Theory and Cooperation
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Animal Behavior and Reproduction
Keywords
reciprocal altruism, evolution of cooperation, cheaters, cleaning symbiosis, moral emotions, trust, guilt, dishonesty, hypocrisy

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