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Cited by 848Aging and Gerontology ResearchAging, Health, and DisabilityRetirement, Disability, and Employment

The Process of Successful Ageing

Open access
Baltes, Margret M., Carstensen, Laura L.·1996·Ageing and Society
DOI 10.1017/s0144686x00003603
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Abstract

As increasingly more people experience old age as a time of growth and productivity, theoretical attention to successful ageing is needed. In this paper, we overview historical, societal and philosophical evidence for a deep, long-standing ambivalence about human ageing that has influenced even scientific views of old age. In recent years, however, discussion of the psychological and behavioural processes people use to maintain and reach new goals in late life has gained momentum. We contribute to this discussion the metamodel of selective optimisation with compensation, developed by Baltes and Baltes. The model is a metamodel that attempts to represent scientific knowledge about the nature of development and ageing with the focus on successful adaptation. The model takes gains and losses jointly into account, pays attention to the great heterogeneity in ageing and successful ageing, and views successful mastery of goals in the face of losses endemic to advanced age as the result of the interplay of the three processes, selection, compensation, and optimisation. We review evidence from the biological and social science literatures for each component and discuss new research avenues to study the interaction of the three processes.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

The paper argues for a process-oriented approach to successful ageing, shifting attention from normative success outcomes to how people attain personal goals amid age-related losses. It presents the metamodel of selective optimisation with compensation (SOC)—selection, compensation, and optimisation—and reviews biological and social science evidence for each component.

Key findings

  • Successful ageing should not be reduced to a single normative criterion; the paper argues for flexible definitions based on personal goals and multiple norms (statistical, ideal, functional), because no one criterion has been widely accepted and ageing is highly heterogeneous.
  • The SOC metamodel defines success as goal attainment and successful ageing as minimisation of losses and maximisation of gains; selection, compensation, and optimisation are proposed to operate together to facilitate mastery of goals despite losses.
  • Evidence for selection includes socioemotional selectivity theory: emotional closeness with a select few is maintained or increased from young to middle adulthood even though social contact is reduced, and in very old age close relationships appear maintained while more peripheral relationships are discarded.
  • Evidence for compensation and optimisation includes intervention findings that older people can profit from “optimising” environments: physical exercise improves biological functioning such as pulmonary and cardiovascular functions, cognitive intervention can increase memory performance, behavioural interventions can reverse chronic dependent behaviours and increase autonomy, and control-enhancing interventions have shown improvement in activity level, health, and life satisfaction.

Methods

  • Design: conceptual and theoretical paper with a literature review; it advocates a process-oriented approach and introduces the SOC metamodel rather than testing it in a new empirical study.
  • Data or sample: Not stated in the paper; the authors review biological and social science literatures and cite initial findings from the Berlin Aging Study.
  • Main analysis: narrative synthesis of historical, societal, philosophical, biological, social, and psychological evidence for selection, compensation, and optimisation; no formal meta-analysis or statistical analysis is reported.

Limitations

  • Stated: more research is needed before the merits of a process-oriented approach will be known; there has been virtually no research on how the three components work together, and whether there is a hierarchy among them remains an empirical question.
  • Stated: the longitudinal extension of the Berlin Aging Study promises some answers to these questions, and initial findings from that study are described as highly encouraging.
  • Evident: the paper reports no primary data or systematic review methodology, and its evidence for the three SOC components is drawn from disparate literatures, so claims about their interaction remain largely theoretical.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1017/s0144686x00003603

Cites

143 of 143 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 113 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Premisecitation

    The primary focus of gerontological research has been decline and loss associated with advanced age.

    “Since its inception, the primary focus of gerontological research has been in decline and loss associated with advanced age (Riley et al. 1994).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Riley et al. 1994

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Interpretationcitation

    The use of normative outcomes fails to acknowledge the social construction of old age.

    “fails to acknowledge the social construction of old age (Dannefer 1987)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Dannefer 1987

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  • Interpretationreasoning

    The three processes of selection, compensation and optimisation, in concert, provide a way to conceptualise the strategies older people use to age well even in the face of loss.

    “The three processes identified in the model -namely, selection, compensation and optimisation -in concert, provide a way to conceptualise the strategies older people use to age well even in the face of loss.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Interpretationcitation

    The use of normative outcomes pays only minimal attention to heterogeneity among and within ageing people.

    “The use of normative outcomes pays only minimal attention to the heterogeneity among and within ageing people (Maddox 1987;Thomae 1981)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Maddox 1987

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    • cites Thomae 1981

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  • Interpretationreasoning

    The focus on theoretically normative psychological outcomes, rooted primarily in middle-class values and white, male standards, has seriously limited understanding of successful ageing.

    “we agree with critics that the focus on theoretically normative psychological outcomes -rooted primarily in middle-class values and, prototypically, in white, male standards -has seriously limited our understanding of successful ageing.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 63
  • May combine two claims. 34

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Definitions of the meaning of success have changed over historical time and will continue to vary with changes in societal, cultural, and biological norms.

    “Definitions of the meaning of success have changed over historical time and will continue to vary along with changes in societal, cultural, and biological norms.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    We cannot predict what any given individual's successful ageing will look like until we know the domains of functioning and goals that that individual considers important, personally meaningful and in which he or she feels competent.

    “We cannot predict what any given individual's successful ageing will look like until we know the domains of functioning and goals that that individual considers important, personally meaningful and in which he or she feels competent.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The three processes of selection, compensation, and optimisation can be distinguished and identified in actual ageing.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Success is not explicitly limited to utilitarian outcomes; it can refer to the attainment of personal goals of all types, ranging from maintenance of physical functioning and good health to generativity, ego-integrity, self-actualisation and social connectedness.

    “Success, however, is not explicitly limited to utilitarian outcomes.Success can refer to the attainment of personal goals of all types, ranging from the maintenance of physical functioning and good health to generativity, ego-integrity, self-actualisation and social connectedness (see Baltes and Silverberg 1994;Bellah et al. 1986).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Baltes and Silverberg 1994

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    • cites Bellah et al. 1986

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The plight of old age is very real, embracing losses in physical, cognitive and social domains.

    “The plight of old age is very real, embracing losses in physical, cognitive and social domains.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Definitions of success have varied throughout history, implying greater or lesser involvement of luck and/or effort and more or less in the way of evaluative connotations.

    “Definitions of success have varied throughout history, implying greater or lesser involvement of luck and/or effort and more or less in the way of evaluative connotations, e.g. a fortunate outcome versus any outcome (Edwards 1967;Simpson and Weiner 1989).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Edwards 1967

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    • cites Simpson and Weiner 1989

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    Interpretationcitation

    The metamodel of selective optimisation with compensation offers a suitable framework within which to pose questions about how people age successfully.

    “In this paper we argue that the metamodel of selective optimisation with compensation (Baltes and Bakes 1990) offers a suitable framework within which to pose such questions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Baltes and Bakes 1990

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The use of normative outcomes ignores the potential for multiple outcomes and diverse standards of success.

    “ignores the potential for multiple outcomes (Schaie 1983) and diverse standards of success (Boesch 1954).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Schaie 1983

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    • cites Boesch 1954

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Most older people are satisfied with their lives, even more so than their younger counterparts.

    “In addition, most older people are satisfied with their lives, even more so than their younger counterparts (Herzog and Rodgers 1981).”
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    • cites Herzog and Rodgers 1981

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    Interpretationcitation

    A conceptualisation of successful ageing founded on denial is ultimately an untenable position.

    “However, a conceptualisation of successful ageing founded on denial is ultimately an untenable position.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Erikson 1959

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    • cites Butler 1974

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    Premisecitation

    The implementation of the Older Americans Act and similar policies functioned as a double-edged sword by providing protection but also endangering individual autonomy and integrity.

    “The implementation of the Older Americans Act (OAA) and similar policies in the U.S. and other countries functioned as a double-edged sword by providing protection but also endangering individual autonomy and integrity (Estes and Binney 1989;Guillemard 1992).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Estes and Binney 1989

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    • cites Guillemard 1992

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisecitation

    Successful ageing is intricately interwoven with a sense of meaning and purpose in life and thus invokes existential paradigms or ideals.

    “Unlike earlier developmental stages in which goals and success are defined as the acquisition of survival skills, successful ageing is intricately interwoven with a sense of meaning and purpose in life and thus invokes existential paradigms or ideals (Cole 1984;Cole and Gadow 1986;Rosenmayr 19830,6;1985).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Cole 1984

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    • cites Cole and Gadow 1986

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    • cites Rosenmayr 1985

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Physical health, functional autonomy, and longevity have served as indicators of successful ageing to biological scientists.

    “Physical health, functional autonomy, and longevity have served as indicators of successful ageing to biological scientists.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Income, population density, marital status, years of formal education, and other variables do predict life satisfaction but account for very little of the variance in life satisfaction.

    “Income, population density, marital status, years of formal education, and other variables do predict life satisfaction but account for very little of the variance in life satisfaction.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites George 1990

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Ryff proposed an integrative model of successful ageing based on developmental, clinical, and mental health perspectives arguing that multiple aspects of life must be considered when assessing successful ageing.

    “More recently, Ryff(ig82;1989a, b) proposed an integrative model of successful ageing based on developmental, clinical, and mental health perspectives arguing that multiple aspects of life must be considered when assessing successful ageing.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ryff 1982;1989a, b

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    Interpretationreasoning

    By focusing almost exclusively on problems of elderly people, researchers reinforced a very negative portrayal of ageing.

    “By focusing almost exclusively on problems of elderly people -their isolation, dependence, role-loss and illness, -researchers reinforced a very negative portrayal of ageing.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Over the past 50 years, a number of theories have been proposed to describe successful ageing.

    “In summary, over the past 50 years, a number of theories have been proposed to describe successful ageing.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Successful ageing, when studied empirically by psychologists, is most commonly operationalised as life satisfaction, high morale or the subjective appraisal of well-being.

    “Successful ageing, when studied empirically by psychologists, is most commonly operationalised as life satisfaction, high morale or the subjective appraisal of well-being.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    No one theory, criterion or even pattern of criteria has been widely accepted as a cogent prescription or explanation for success in old age.

    “No one theory, criterion or even pattern of criteria has been widely accepted as a cogent prescription or explanation for success in old age.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    With the advent of industrial capitalism, human value became equated with productivity and retirement was institutionalised as a symbol of non-productivity.

    “With the advent of industrial capitalism, human value became equated with productivity and, at the same time, retirement was institutionalised as a symbol of non-productivity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Gerontological theories have either focused on decline or growth; none have considered gains and losses and their potential interactions conjointly.

    “Nevertheless, gerontological theories have either focused on decline or growth.None that we know of have considered gains and losses and their potential interactions conjointly.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    The model is a metamodel that attempts to represent scientific knowledge about the nature of development and ageing with the focus on successful adaptation.

    “The model is a metamodel that attempts to represent scientific knowledge about the nature of development and ageing with the focus on successful adaptation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationcitation

    A multicriteria approach is preferred to a monocriterion approach.

    “A multicriteria approach is preferred to a monocriterion approach (Ryff 1989a;1991)-”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ryff 1989a;1991

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    In old age, changes in personal and environmental resources are often losses.

    “In old age, these changes are often losses.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Selection can also involve new or transformed domains and goals.

    “Selection can also involve new or transformed domains and goals.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The ability to learn language is far easier early in life than later and the difficulty in second language acquisition increases as a function of language development.

    “The ability to learn language is far easier early in life than later and the difficulty in second language acquisition increases as a function of language development (Kellerman and Smith 1986).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kellerman and Smith 1986

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    In life-span psychology, the major criterion for successful development is the efficacious functioning of the individual in an identified system, domain or task.

    “In life-span psychology (P.B. Baltes 1987Baltes , 1991;;P. B. Bakes et al. 1980), the major criterion for successful development is the efficacious functioning of the individual in an identified system (biological, social, psychological), domain (sports, leisure, job, family) or task (selfactualisation, cognitive performance, social integration.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites P.B. Baltes 1987

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    • cites P. B. Bakes et al. 1980

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Most gerontological theories do not take into account individual or cultural variation in goals and usually apply ideal and/or statistical norms from within one culture, rarely functional or individual norms.

    “We argue that most gerontological theories do not take into account individual or cultural variation in goals and usually apply ideal and/or statistical norms from within one culture, rarely functional or individual norms.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Selection at all levels of behaviour is a core element of any theory of behaviour.

    “Selection at all levels of behaviour (input, processing, output) is a core element of any theory of behaviour.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    In human development, maturation involves progressive specialisation, which involves both gains and losses.

    “In human development, maturation involves progressive specialisation, which involves both gains and losses.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    What and how many domains people choose and the specific strategies they use in striving towards successful ageing may differ from person to person.

    “What and how many domains people choose and the specific strategies they use in striving towards successful ageing may differ from person to person.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Any definition of success based exclusively on theoretically normative outcomes and goals will, by its very nature, lack generalisability and longevity.

    “Any definition of success based exclusively on theoretically normative outcomes and goals will, by its very nature, lack generalisability and longevity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    If implemented together, use of the three processes enables people to master their goals despite, or perhaps even because of, losses and increasing vulnerabilities.

    “If implemented together, use of the processes enables people to master their goals despite, or perhaps even because of, losses and increasing vulnerabilities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The three processes of selection, compensation, and optimisation can be distinguished and identified in actual ageing.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    When the question becomes how success is achieved, the processes people use to cope with life and ageing may be more universal and less dependent on cultural vicissitudes.

    “When the question becomes: How is success achieved?, we may find that the processes people use to cope with life and ageing are more universal and less dependent on cultural vicissitudes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    No one criterion has been found acceptable.

    “But no one criterion has been found acceptable.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    According to the model, the same processes are at work even when goals vary over individuals, time or context.

    “According to the model, the same processes are at work even when goals vary over individuals, time or context.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The criteria of goal attainment can vary by type of assessment, by the authority judging success, and by norms.

    “Furthermore, the criteria of goal attainment can vary by type of assessment (objective vs. subjective), by the authority (individual, group, family, culture) judging success, and by norms (statistical, ideal, functional).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Selection always entails the readjustment of individual goals.

    “Selection always entails the readjustment of individual goals.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The SOC metamodel defines success as goal attainment and successful ageing as minimisation of losses and maximisation of gains.

    “In this sense, the metamodel of selective optimisation with compensation (SOC) (P.B. Baltes and Baltes 1990;Baltes 1987;Baltes and Reichert 1982) defines success as goal attainment and successful ageing as minimisation of losses and maximisation of gains.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites P.B. Baltes and Baltes 1990

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    • cites Baltes 1987

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    • cites Baltes and Reichert 1982

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    • The authors state this as an assumption: Successful ageing can be adequately defined as the attainment of personal goals.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationcitation

    A rethinking of successful ageing is necessary in order to avoid a class bias or Utopian dream.

    “We agree with Cole (1984) and Rosenmayr (1985) that a rethinking of successful ageing is necessary in order to avoid a class bias or Utopian dream.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Cole 1984

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    • cites Rosenmayr 1985

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    On the most general level, successful ageing implies that people reach personal goals; these might coincide with ideal or statistical norms but may also concur with idiosyncratic goals.

    “On the most general level, successful ageing implies that people reach personal goals; these might coincide with ideal or statistical norms but may also concur with idiosyncratic goals.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Successful ageing can be adequately defined as the attainment of personal goals.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    A positive view of the potential of ageing does not necessarily include a prescription for the outcome, or place sole responsibility for successful ageing on the individual.

    “We disagree, however, that a positive view of the potential of ageing necessarily includes a prescription for the outcome, or places sole responsibility for successful ageing on the individual.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    A solution to the problem of ranking success criteria seems to be a flexible definition of success outcomes.

    “A solution to this problem seems to be a flexible definition of success outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    A useful model of successful ageing must account for the dynamics between gains and losses, including reduction in reserves and increasing losses and potential growth and plasticity in old age.

    “With this said, a useful model of successful ageing must account for the dynamics between gains and losses; that is, on the one hand, for a reduction in reserves and an increasing number of specific losses and challenges in the biological, social, and psychological spheres; and, on the other hand, for potential growth and plasticity in old age.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The metamodel is considered prototypical in its genotype of mastery, but it can accommodate wide interindividual differences in its phenotypic manifestation.

    “The metamodel, thus, is considered prototypical in its genotype of mastery, but it can accommodate wide interindividual differences in its phenotypic manifestation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Success can be defined by different authorities, by different criteria of assessment, and by different norms.

    “Success can be defined by different authorities (e.g.individual, peer group, society, scientific theory), by different criteria of assessment (e.g.subjective vs. objective) and by different norms (e.g.functional, statistical, ideal norm).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The three processes embrace a great multitude of psychological mechanisms and strategies.

    “The three processes embrace a great multitude of psychological mechanisms and strategies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In biology, selection is the term used to explain canalisation and specialisation during biological development.

    “In biology, selection is the term used to explain canalisation and specialisation during biological development (Waddington 1975).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Waddington 1975

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Finding personal meaning in life is the major developmental task of old age.

    “Wong (1989) following Jung (1931) and Erickson and colleagues (1986) argue that finding personal meaning in life is the major developmental task of old age.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Wong 1989

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    • cites Jung 1931

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    • cites Erickson and colleagues 1986

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    Psychological compensatory efforts include the use of new mnemonic strategies or external memory aids when internal memory mechanics or strategies prove insufficient.

    “Psychological compensatory efforts include, for example, the use of new mnemonic strategies or external memory aids when internal memory mechanics or strategies prove insufficient.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Socioemotional selectivity theory proposes that the judicious reduction of social contact in adulthood and especially in old age fosters enhanced emotional satisfaction and is adaptive.

    “socioemotional selectivity theory proposes that the judicious reduction of social contact in adulthood (and especially in old age) fosters enhanced emotional satisfaction and is, thus, adaptive.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Carstensen 1991

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    • cites Carstensen 1993

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    People with strong self-efficacy beliefs perceive losses as challenge; those with weak ones perceive losses as threats.

    “People with strong self-efficacy beliefs perceive losses as challenge; those with weak ones perceive losses as threats (Bandura and Cervone 1986;Bandura and Wood 1989).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bandura and Cervone 1986

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    • cites Bandura and Wood 1989

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Socioemotional selectivity theory contends that emotional goals become increasingly salient with age and that people engage in active efforts to restructure their social worlds such that they maximise emotionally meaningful experiences.

    “The theory contends that emotional goals become increasingly salient with age and that people engage in active efforts to restructure their social worlds such that they maximise emotionally meaningful experiences.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Carstensen 1991

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    • cites Carstensen 1993

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationnone given

    Compensation differs from selection in that the goal is maintained, but new means are enlisted to compensate for a behavioural deficiency in order to maintain or optimise prior functioning.

    “Compensation, thus, differs from selection in that the goal is maintained, but new means are enlisted to compensate for a behavioural deficiency in order to maintain or optimise prior functioning.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Dependency can secure and optimise social contact.

    “Baltes and her colleagues demonstrated, for example, that dependency can secure and optimise social contact (for reviews see Baltes 1995;Baltes and Wahl 1991).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Baltes 1995

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    • cites Baltes and Wahl 1991

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Elderly people select not to drive at dusk, dawn or at night or make only short trips in familiar territory; they avoid peak-period driving and reduce risk-taking and aggressive behaviour and instead drive more defensively.

    “They select not to drive at dusk, dawn or at night or make only short trips in familiar territory; they avoid peak-period driving and reduce risk-taking and aggressive behaviour and instead drive more defensively.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Secondary control and accommodative coping refer essentially to cognitive selection strategies involving the reorganisation of goal structures and goal hierarchies so that a fit between personal competence and environmental demands is achieved.

    “Secondary control (Heckhausen andSchulz 1993, 1995;Rothbaum et al. 1982) and accommodative coping (Brandtstadter and Renner 1990) refer essentially to cognitive selection strategies in that they involve the reorganisation of goal structures and goal hierarchies so that a fit between personal competence and environmental demands is achieved.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Heckhausen and Schulz 1993, 1995

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Rothbaum et al. 1982

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Brandtstadter and Renner 1990

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Compensation can involve existing behaviours or the acquisition of new skills or construction of new means not yet in one's repertoire.

    “Compensation can involve existing behaviours or the acquisition of new skills or construction of new means not yet in ones repertoire.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Not only technical means, but human means are often needed to compensate.

    “Not only technical means, but human means are often needed to compensate.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Compensation becomes operative when there are person- or environment-associated changes in means-ends resources; i.e. specific behavioural capacities or skills are lost or reduced below the level required for adequate functioning.

    “Compensation, the second component factor facilitating mastery of loss in reserves in old age, becomes operative when there are person-or environment-associated changes in means-ends resources; i.e. specific behavioural capacities or skills are lost or reduced below the level required for adequate functioning.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Compensation can also become necessary as the result of selection.

    “Compensation can also become necessary as the result of selection.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    The vulnerability model of schizophrenia argues for self-healing attempts as compensatory efforts on the part of vulnerable persons to stabilise their psychic equilibrium.

    “In the area ofpsychopathology, the vulnerability model of schizophrenia argues for self-healing attempts as compensatory efforts on the part of vulnerable persons to stabilise their psychic equilibrium.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    When environmental conditions encourage practice, training and exercise and when attention and motivation are stimulated, declines long considered intractable can be reversed and improved.

    “When environmental conditions encourage practice, training and exercise and when attention and motivation are stimulated, declines -long considered to be intractable -can be reversed and improved.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    In a process-oriented approach, classification of goals and strategies rather than outcomes alone becomes the focus.

    “In short, in a process-oriented approach classification of goals and strategies rather than outcomes alone becomes the focus.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Optimisation is dependent upon available possibilities and opportunities, unless older people actively and individually forge new terrain and frontiers.

    “Optimisation is dependent upon available possibilities and opportunities, unless older people actively and individually forge new terrain and frontiers (Rosenmayr 1983 a, b).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rosenmayr 1983 a, b

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Older couples report greater enjoyment from discussions about children, grandchildren, dreams, vacations and doing things together and less conflict surrounding money, religion, recreation and children.

    “and report greater enjoyment from discussions about children, grandchildren, dreams, vacations and doing things together and less conflict surrounding money, religion, recreation and children (Levenson et al. 1993)-”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Levenson et al. 1993

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Many elderly people, in principle, have the necessary resources and reserves to optimise functions but face restrictive or overprotective environments that inhibit optimisation.

    “Recent literature in gerontology suggests that many elderly people, in principle, have the necessary resources and reserves to optimise functions but face restrictive or overprotective environments that inhibit optimisation (Baltes and Wahl iggi).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Baltes and Wahl iggi

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    A process-oriented approach acknowledges the heterogeneity of ageing people and avoids the inevitable lack of precision inherent in applying global constructs across diverse groups of people.

    “It both acknowledges the heterogeneity of ageing people and avoids the inevitable lack of precision inherent in applying global constructs across diverse groups of people.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Human ageing is characterized by vast heterogeneity.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Behavioural interventions can reverse chronic dependent behaviours and increase autonomy.

    “behavioural interventions can reverse chronic dependent behaviours and increase autonomy (Bakes 1995).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bakes 1995

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    A process-oriented approach accentuates the functional properties of behaviours and strategies.

    “This type of approach accentuates the functional properties of behaviours and strategies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The process-oriented approach considers the interplay of gains and losses inherent in old age.

    “Third, the process-oriented approach we advocate considers the interplay of gains and losses inherent in old age.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Optimisation may occur in existing domains or involve investment in new domains and goals consonant with developmental tasks of old age, such as acceptance of one's own mortality.

    “Optimisation may occur in existing domains {e.g.generativity) or involve investment in new domains and goals consonant with developmental tasks of old age, such as acceptance of one's own mortality.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The selective optimisation with compensation model implies that old age holds the potential to be a time when the accumulated knowledge and expertise of a life-time is invested in the realisation of a distilled set of highly meaningful domains and goals.

    “Rather than deny the inevitable losses that all old people experience in advanced age, the selective optimisation with compensation model implies that old age holds the potential to be a time when the accumulated knowledge and expertise of a life-time is invested in the realisation of a distilled set of highly meaningful domains and goals.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    A process-oriented approach directs attention to the strategies people use to master specific personal goals.

    “Second, a process-oriented approach directs attention to the strategies people use to master specific personal goals.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Elderly drivers compensate for decreased reaction time by driving more slowly and by using interchanges with lights instead of stop signs only.

    “Elderly drivers compensate, for instance, decreased reaction time by driving more slowly and by using interchanges with lights instead of stop signs only; they compensate for loss in peripheral vision by turning their head when changing lanes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Committee for the Study in Improving Mobility and Safety for Older Person 1988

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Warnes et al. 1991

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The time and energy invested in optimising one domain, task or goal will necessarily influence one's involvements in other domains.

    “The time and energy invested in optimising one domain, task or goal will necessarily influence one's involvements in other domains.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Even very frail people can select, compensate and optimise to maximise goal attainment.

    “We contend, however, that even very frail people can select, compensate and optimise to maximise goal attainment.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    There is ample evidence of each individual component process of the model, but there has been virtually no research on the manner in which the components work together.

    “Although there is ample evidence of each individual component process of the model, there has been virtually no research on the manner in which the components work together.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Skinner's writings show that the intellectual domain was of high priority for him and that his life was designed around maximising function in this selected domain as opposed to others.

    “It was clear from his writings that the intellectual domain was of high priority and that his life was designed around maximising function in this selected domain as opposed to others.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Skinner 1983

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    The model proposed in this paper represents a qualitative departure from the traditional social science approach to successful ageing, moving away from a focus on prescribed outcomes and ideal or statistical norms to an analysis in which the primary focus is on the processes people use to obtain desired goals.

    “In conclusion, the model proposed in this paper represents a qualitative departure from the traditional social science approach to successful ageing, moving away from a focus on prescribed outcomes and ideal or statistical norms to an analysis in which the primary focus is on the processes people use to obtain desired goals.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    When resources become depleted, an increasingly fine-tuned and subtle interplay among the three components is necessary.

    “When resources become depleted, an increasingly fine-tuned and subtle interplay among the three components is necessary.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
80 of 80

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Successful ageing can be adequately defined as the attainment of personal goals.

    “The proposed model defines success as the attainment of goals which can differ widely among people and can be measured against diverse standards and norms.”
    “In this sense, the metamodel of selective optimisation with compensation (SOC) (P.B. Baltes and Baltes 1990;Baltes 1987;Baltes and Reichert 1982) defines success as goal attainment and successful ageing as minimisation of losses and maximisation of gains.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The three processes of selection, compensation, and optimisation can be distinguished and identified in actual ageing.

    “The metamodel specifies three processes: selection, compensation, and optimisation.If implemented together, use of the processes enables people to master their goals despite, or perhaps even because of, losses and increasing vulnerabilities.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Human ageing is characterized by vast heterogeneity.

    “due to the vast heterogeneity inherent in human ageing”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Older couples are happier than younger couples.

    “Not only are older couples happier than younger couples”
4 of 4

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • The new gerontology can render invisible important adaptive and other actions that allow people to cope with change.

    “The new gerontology can render invisible important adaptive and other actions that allow people to cope with change (see Baltes & Carstensen, 1996).”

    From Self, Society, and the "New Gerontology" (2003) · cites this paper as Baltes & Carstensen, 1996

    The Summary and conclusions says a process-oriented approach reveals that behaviours which appear maladaptive can be adaptive once their function is examined. It contrasts this with approaches focused on prescribed outcomes and normative standards. The paper supports the concern about overlooking adaptive actions, but directs its criticism at outcome-focused approaches, not at the “new gerontology” as a whole; page numbers were unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Past research has demonstrated that each life stage exhibits its own unique trajectories, goals, and influences, and activities can therefore differ from being of no impact, to being adaptive or maladaptive depending on which developmental period one examines.

    “Past research has demonstrated that each life stage exhibits its own unique trajectories, goals, and influences19,45–47, and activities can therefore differ from being of no impact, to being adaptive or maladaptive depending on which developmental period one examines46,48.”

    From Windows of developmental sensitivity to social media (2022) · cites this paper as [48]

    Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Baltes and Reichert citation year conflicts with the reference list

    Minor

    The text cites Baltes and Reichert as 1982, while the reference list gives their work as 1992. An earlier citation in the paper also uses 1992.

  • Wong citation year conflicts with the reference list

    Minor

    The passage cites Wong as published in 1918, but the reference list gives the corresponding work as published in 1989; its page range includes the cited page 518.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 25

  1. Brim, 1992, Ambition
  2. Merton, 1968, The Matthew effect in science: the reward and communication system of science, Science, 199, 55
  3. Osgood, 1989, The Science and Practice of Gerontology, 55
  4. Marsiske, 1995, Compensation for Psychological Defects and Declines: Managing Losses and Promoting Gains, 35
  5. Marsiske, 1994, Paper presented at the 13th Biennial Meeting of the International Society for the Study of Behavioral Development
  6. Riley, 1994, Age and Structural Lag
  7. Havighurst, 1953, Older People
  8. Warnes, 1991, Elderly Drivers and New Technology
  9. Thomae, 1981, Prospective Longitudinal Research, 165
  10. Baltes, 1987, Der Mensch im Zusammenspiel von Anlageund Umwelt, 353
  11. Guillemard, 1992, Zukunft des Altems und gesellschaftliche Entwicklung, 614
  12. Carstensen, 1993, Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Developmental Perspectives on Motivation, 40, 209
  13. Rosenmayr, 1989, Erfolgreiches Altern: Bedingungen und Variationen, 96
  14. Schwarz, 1989, The Social Psychology of Well-being
  15. Carstensen, 1991, Socioemotional selectivity theory: social activity in life-span context, Annual Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 11, 195
  16. Wong, 1991, Extensions of Attribution Theory
  17. Bandura, 1991, Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 1990, 38, 69
  18. Baltes, Jahrbuch der medizinischen Psychologie: Psychosoziale Gerontologie
  19. 1988, Transportation in an aging society: Improving mobility and safety for older persons
  20. Cotman, 1985, Synaptic Plasticity
  21. Rosenmayr, 1983, Das Alter—ein Stück bewuβt gelebten Lebens
  22. Rosenmayr, 1983, Die späte Freiheit
  23. Brim, 1988, Losing and winning: the nature of ambition in everyday life, Psychology Today, 9, 48
  24. Wiedl, 1987, eserven geistiger Leistungsfähigkeit bei geriatrischen Psychiatriepatienten und Altenheimbewohnern (Reserves of mental functioning in old psychiatric patients and nursing home residents), Zeitschrift für klinische Psychologie, 16, 29
  25. Boesch, 1954, Über die klinische Methode in der psychologischen Persönlichkeits-forschung, Zeitschrift für diagnostische Psychologic, 2, 275

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Baltes, M. M., & Carstensen, L. L.
Affiliations
  • Freie Universität Berlin (DE)
  • Stanford University (US)
ORCID
Carstensen, Laura L.
Venue
Ageing and Society
Publisher
Cambridge University Press (CUP)
Published
1996-07
Volume
16
Issue
4
Pages
397-422
ISSN
  • 0144-686X (ISSN-L)
  • 1469-1779
DOI
10.1017/s0144686x00003603
OpenAlex
W2132117335
Semantic Scholar
993968db28530ac42a04d006151e7e550a214091
Cited by
848
References
143
Citations by year
2026: 11 · 2025: 32 · 2024: 36 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 30 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 91 · 2019: 46 · 2018: 33 · 2017: 34 · 2016: 44 · 2015: 34 · 2014: 35 · 2013: 28 · 2012: 30
FWCI
18.27
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.cambridge.org/core/terms (unspecified, 4519 d)
Locations
Ageing and Society (publishedVersion)
Funders
  • University of Cambridge
  • University of Oxford
  • Volkswagen Foundation
  • Max-Planck-Institut für Bildungsforschung
  • National Institute on Aging (AGO8816)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Aging, Health, and Disability
  • Social Sciences › Demography › Retirement, Disability, and Employment
Keywords
successful aging, selection, optimization, compensation, old age, gain and loss

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

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