A life-span theory of control.

Heckhausen, Jutta; Schulz, Richard

doi:10.1037/0033-295x.102.2.284

Cited by 1,844Aging and Gerontology ResearchBehavioral Health and InterventionsOptimism, Hope, and Well-being

A life-span theory of control.

Heckhausen, Jutta, Schulz, Richard·1995·Psychological Review

DOI 10.1037/0033-295x.102.2.284

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Abstract

A life-span theory of development is presented that is based on the concepts of primary and secondary control. Primary control refers to behaviors directed at the external environment and involves attempts to change the world to fit the needs and desires of the individual. Secondary control is targeted at internal processes and serves to minimize losses in, maintain, and expand existing levels of primary control. Secondary control helps the individual to cope with failure and fosters primary control by channeling motivational resources toward selected action goals throughout the life course. Primary control has functional primacy over secondary control. An analysis of extensive and diverse literatures spanning infancy through old age shows that trade-offs between primary and secondary control undergo systematic shifts across the life course in response to the opportunities and constraints encountered.

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New perspectives on the development of intelligence in adulthood: Toward a dual-process conception and a model of selective optimization with compensation
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Long-term effects of control and predictability-enhancing interventions: Findings and ethical issues.
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Self-percepts of control in middle and later adulthood: Buffering losses by rescaling goals.
Brandtstädter, J., & Rothermund, K. (1994) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.9.2.265 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Ontogenesis and Sociogenesis: Problematics for Theory and Research about Development and Socialization Across the Lifespan
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The Role of Social Comparisons Processes in the Psychological Adaptation of Elderly Adults
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Optimisation by Selection and Compensation: Balancing Primary and Secondary Control in Life Span Development
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A cognitive-developmental analysis of achievement and moral judgments.
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Methoden der Biographie- und Lebenslaufforschung
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Adult Development and Aging
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Identifying Coping Strategies in Children
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Causal attributions for success and failure.
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Self-citation
Developmental Differences in Primary and Secondary Control Coping and Adjustment to Juvenile Diabetes
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From weighing to willing: Approaching a change decision through pre- or postdecisional mentation
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Coping During Childhood and Adolescence: A Motivational Perspective
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Perceived control and intellectual functioning in the elderly: A 5-year longitudinal study.
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Adjustment of adult–child instruction according to child's age and task.
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Social Structure and Social Construction of Life Stages
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Structural Constraints on the Life Course
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Some determinants of play and exploration in chimpanzees.
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Fourteen-year cohort-sequential analyses of adult intellectual development.
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Perceived Controllability of Expected Psychological Change Across Adulthood and Old Age
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Financial strain and psychological well-being among the American and Japanese elderly.
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Learning to Control the Environment in Infancy
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Perceived Control Over Memory Aging: Developmental and Intervention Perspectives
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Financial strain and psychological well-being among the American and Japanese elderly.
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Extended conditioning and 24-hour retention in infants
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Testing for Limits of Cognitive Reserve Capacity: A Promising Strategy for Early Diagnosis of Dementia?
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The Construction of Meaning in Old Age: Possibilities and Constraints
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Archiv für Psychologie
Psychologie, D. G. F. (1970) · Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft eBooks · Cited by 82 · see citing works
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Post-stroke depression in primary support persons: Predicting those at risk.
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Further evidence concerning the effects of perceptions of effort and ability on achievement evaluation.
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Adult Development, Control, and Adaptive Functioning
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Peak performance and age: An examination of peak performance in sports
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Deliberative Versus Implemental States of Mind: The Issue of Impartiality in Predecisional and Postdecisional Information Processing
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Coping Strategies from the Perspective of Two Developmental Markers: Age and Social Reasoning
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Pleasure Derived by Children from Cognitive Challenge and Mastery
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Control and the disablement process in the elderly.
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Children's Coping With Diabetes: Understanding the Role of Cognitive Development
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Children's Beliefs about Control, Means-ends, and Agency: Developmental Differences during Middle Childhood
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Can I control it? The pursuit of veridical answers across the life-span
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Balancing for weaknesses and challenging developmental potential: A longitudinal study of mother-infant dyads in apprenticeship interactions.
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Sprache und Kognition
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Adult Development and Aging: Myths and Emerging Realities
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Beliefs about aging and illness in a community sample
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The Social context of learning and development
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Experimental and Measurement Approaches to Internal Control in At‐Risk Older Adults
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Developmental Differences in the Manifestation of Mastery Motivation on Problem-solving Tasks
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Developmental change in perceived control: Recognizing noncontingency in the laboratory and perceiving it in the world.
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The Emergence of 'Wanting to Do It Oneself': A Precursor of Achievement Motivation
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Age Differences in the Dimensions of Perceived Control during Middle Childhood: Implications for Developmental Conceptualizations and Research
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Differentiation of the concepts of luck and skill.
Nicholls, J. G., & Miller, A. (1985) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.21.1.76 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Illusory contingency in children at the state fair.
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A perceived control intervention for at-risk older adults.
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Health Care Implications of Desire and Expectancy for Control in Elderly Adults
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Experimental Social Gerontology: A Social Psychological Perspective
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Financial strain, economic values, and somatic symptoms in later life.
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Origins of stereotypes of the elderly: An experimental study of the self-other discrepancy
Schuiz, R., & Fritz, S. (1987) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/03610738708259324 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Contingent Stimulation and Infant Competence
Ramey, C. T., & Finkelstein, N. W. (1978) · Journal of Pediatric Psychology · doi:10.1093/jpepsy/3.2.89 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Relationships Between Intellectual Control Beliefs and Psychometric Intelligence in Adulthood
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The study of life review: An approach to the investigation of intellectual development across the life span
Staudinger, U. M. (1989) · Max Planck Digital Library · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Becoming Aware of One's Competence in the Second Year: Developmental Progression within the Mother Child Dyad
Heckhausen, J. (1988) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/016502548801100302 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
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Age, period, and cohort in the study of the life course: A comparison of classical A-P-C-analysis with event history analysis or farewell to Lexis?
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Perceived contingency of skill and chance events: A developmental analysis.
Weisz, J. R., Yeates, K. O., Robertson, D., & Beckham, J. C. (1982) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.18.6.898 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Information processing before and after the formation of an intent
Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1986) · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Dependence in the elderly from an interactional point of view: Verbal and observational data.
Wahl, H.-W. (1991) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.6.2.238 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Aging in the eighties : America in transition : a survey
Harris, L., & Associates (1981) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 28 · see citing works

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Social and Psychological Resources and Adaptation
Hobfoll, S. E. (2002) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.6.4.307 · Cited by 4,594 · see citing works
Searching for the structure of coping: A review and critique of category systems for classifying ways of coping
Skinner, E. A., Edge, K., Altman, J., & Sherwood, H. (2003) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.2.216 · Cited by 2,639 · see citing works
Socioemotional selectivity theory and the regulation of emotion in the second half of life
Carstensen, L. L., Fung, H. H., & Charles, S. T. (2003) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1023/a:1024569803230 · Cited by 1,978 · see citing works
Let's put the person back into entrepreneurship research: A meta-analysis on the relationship between business owners' personality traits, business creation, and success
Rauch, A., & Fresé, M. (2007) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/13594320701595438 · Cited by 1,879 · see citing works
A guide to constructs of control.
Skinner, E. A. (1996) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.71.3.549 · Cited by 1,805 · see citing works
Meaning in the context of stress and coping
Park, C. L., & Folkman, S. (1997) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.1.2.115 · Cited by 1,821 · see citing works
On the incomplete architecture of human ontogeny: Selection, optimization, and compensation as foundation of developmental theory
Baltes, P. B. (1997) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.52.4.366 · Cited by 2,066 · see citing works
On the incomplete architecture of human ontogeny: Selection, optimization, and compensation as foundation of developmental theory.
Baltes, P. B. (1997) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.52.4.366 · Cited by 2,066 · see citing works
LIFESPAN PSYCHOLOGY: Theory and Application to Intellectual Functioning
Baltes, P. B., Staudinger, U. M., & Lindenberger, U. (1999) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.50.1.471 · Cited by 1,281 · see citing works
New Developments in Goal Setting and Task Performance
Locke, E. A. (2013) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203082744 · Cited by 1,255 · see citing works
Developmental Dynamics of Student Engagement, Coping, and Everyday Resilience
Skinner, E. A., & Pitzer, J. R. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-2018-7_2 · Cited by 1,262 · see citing works
Deviance or uniqueness, harmony or conformity: A cultural analysis
Kim, H., & Markus, H. R. (1999) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.4.785 · Cited by 1,216 · see citing works
A motivational theory of life-span development.
Heckhausen, J., Wrosch, C., & Schulz, R. (2010) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0017668 · Cited by 1,486 · see citing works
Self-citation
An episodic process model of affective influences on performance.
Beal, D., Weiss, H., Barros, E., & Macdermid, S. (2005) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.90.6.1054 · Cited by 1,020 · see citing works
Adaptive Self-Regulation of Unattainable Goals: Goal Disengagement, Goal Reengagement, and Subjective Well-Being
Wrosch, C., Scheier, M. F., Miller, G. E., Schulz, R., & Carver, C. S. (2003) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167203256921 · Cited by 991 · see citing works
Self-citation
Male, female: The evolution of human sex differences.
Geary, D. C. (1998) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10370-000 · Cited by 978 · see citing works
4. Personal initiative: An active performance concept for work in the 21st century
Frese, M., & Fay, D. (2001) · Research in Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0191-3085(01)23005-6 · Cited by 1,453 · see citing works
Building Understanding of the Domain of Consumer Vulnerability
Baker, S. M., Gentry, J. W., & Rittenburg, T. L. (2005) · Journal of Macromarketing · doi:10.1177/0276146705280622 · Cited by 895 · see citing works
A developmental-contextual model of couples coping with chronic illness across the adult life span.
Berg, C. A., & Upchurch, R. (2007) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.6.920 · Cited by 877 · see citing works
The Ontogenesis of Social Dominance: A Strategy-Based Evolutionary Perspective
Hawley, P. H. (1999) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1006/drev.1998.0470 · Cited by 877 · see citing works
The Functional Theory of Counterfactual Thinking
Epstude, K., & Roese, N. J. (2008) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868308316091 · Cited by 858 · see citing works
The Process of Successful Ageing
Baltes, M. M., & Carstensen, L. L. (1996) · Ageing and Society · doi:10.1017/s0144686x00003603 · Cited by 848 · see citing works
The Relation Between Everyday Activities and Successful Aging: A 6-Year Longitudinal Study
Menec, V. H. (2003) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences · doi:10.1093/geronb/58.2.s74 · Cited by 825 · see citing works
The Life-Course Dynamics of Goal Pursuit and Goal Adjustment: A Two-Process Framework
Brandtstädter, J., & Rothermund, K. (2002) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1006/drev.2001.0539 · Cited by 815 · see citing works
COVID-19 pandemic: A review of the global lockdown and its far-reaching effects
Onyeaka, H. N., Anumudu, C. K., Al-Sharify, Z. T., Egele-Godswill, E., & Mbaegbu, P. (2021) · Science Progress · doi:10.1177/00368504211019854 · Cited by 784 · see citing works
Journal of Vocational Behavior
Leong, F. T. L. (2008) · Encyclopedia of Counseling · doi:10.4135/9781412963978.n546 · Cited by 769 · see citing works
Positive Youth Development: Theory, Research, and Applications
Benson, P., Scales, P. C., Hamilton, S. F., & Sesma, A. (2007) · doi:10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0116 · Cited by 758 · see citing works
Age and work‐related motives: Results of a meta‐analysis
Kooij, D. T. A. M., de Lange, A. H., Jansen, P. G. W., Kanfer, R., & Dikkers, J. (2011) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.665 · Cited by 744 · see citing works
Emotional Aging: Recent Findings and Future Trends
Scheibe, S., & Carstensen, L. L. (2010) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbp132 · Cited by 688 · see citing works
The Importance of Goal Disengagement in Adaptive Self-Regulation: When Giving Up is Beneficial
Wrosch, C., Scheier, M. F., Carver, C. S., & Schulz, R. (2003) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860309021 · Cited by 653 · see citing works
Self-citation
Beyond unfavorable thinking: the illness cognition questionnaire for chronic diseases
Evers, A. W. M., Kraaimaat, F. W., van Lankveld, W., Jongen, P. J. H., Jacobs, J. W. G., & Bijlsma, J. W. J. (2001) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.69.6.1026 · Cited by 657 · see citing works
You Can't Always Get What You Want: Educational Attainment, Agency, and Choice.
Snibbe, A. C., & Markus, H. R. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.4.703 · Cited by 614 · see citing works
The social construction of the personal past and its implications for adult development.
Pasupathi, M. (2001) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.127.5.651 · Cited by 566 · see citing works
Self‐Compassion, Stress, and Coping
Allen, A. B., & Leary, M. R. (2010) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2009.00246.x · Cited by 757 · see citing works
The origin of mind: Evolution of brain, cognition, and general intelligence.
Geary, D. C. (2005) · doi:10.1037/10871-000 · Cited by 551 · see citing works
The Effect of Daily Stress, Personality, and Age on Daily Negative Affect
Mroczek, D. K., & Almeida, D. M. (2004) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.0022-3506.2004.00265.x · Cited by 535 · see citing works
A Social-Cognitive, Control-Value Theory of Achievement Emotions
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Authors: Heckhausen, J., & Schulz, R.
Affiliations: Max Planck Institute for Human Development (DE)
ORCID: Heckhausen, Jutta
Venue: Psychological Review
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1995
Volume: 102
Issue: 2
Pages: 284-304
ISSN: 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
1939-1471
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.102.2.284
OpenAlex: W2130212806
Semantic Scholar: 155e1d5e2cf570e3b465d059e2f5941c94d12c5b
Cited by: 1,844
References: 210
Citations by year: 2026: 37 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 60 · 2023: 46 · 2022: 50 · 2021: 72 · 2020: 59 · 2019: 87 · 2018: 65 · 2017: 68 · 2016: 72 · 2015: 87 · 2014: 73 · 2013: 73 · 2012: 96
FWCI: 55.83
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (5r01mh041887-03)
National Institute on Aging (AG-05444)
National Institute of Mental Health (MH41887)
National Cancer Institute (CA 48635, R01CA048635)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Optimism, Hope, and Well-being
Keywords: lifespan development, primary control, secondary control, coping with failure, motivational resources, action goals, developmental trade-offs, life course, old age
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aging, Child, Child, Preschool, Defense Mechanisms, Female, Humans, Infant, Internal-External Control, Male, Middle Aged, Personality Development, Social Perception, Social Values

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A life-span theory of control.

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