The DOI matches its Crossref record; 67 of the 68 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 44 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Childhood maltreatment and its effect on neurocognitive functioning: Timing and chronicity matter
Open accessAbstract
Childhood maltreatment represents a complex stressor, with the developmental timing, duration, frequency, and type of maltreatment varying with each child (Barnett, Manly, & Cicchetti, 1993; Cicchetti & Manly, 2001). Multiple brain regions and neural circuits are disrupted by the experience of child maltreatment (Cicchetti & Toth, in press; DeBellis et al., 2002; McCrory & Viding, 2010; Teicher, Anderson, & Polcari, 2012). These neurobiological compromises indicate the impairment of a number of important cognitive functions, including working memory and inhibitory control. The present study extends prior research by examining the effect of childhood maltreatment on neurocognitive functioning based on developmental timing of maltreatment, including onset, chronicity, and recency, in a sample of 3- to 9-year-old nonmaltreated (n= 136) and maltreated children (n= 223). Maltreated children performed more poorly on inhibitory control and working-memory tasks than did nonmaltreated children. Group differences between maltreated children based on the timing of maltreatment and the chronicity of maltreatment also were evident. Specifically, children who were maltreated during infancy, and children with a chronic history of maltreatment, exhibited significantly poorer inhibitory control and working-memory performance than did children without a history of maltreatment. The results suggest that maltreatment occurring during infancy, a period of major brain organization, disrupts normative structure and function, and these deficits are further instantiated by the prolonged stress of chronic maltreatment during the early years of life.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This cross-sectional study compared low-SES maltreated and nonmaltreated children aged 3–9 on neurocognitive tasks. Maltreated children showed poorer inhibitory control and working memory, especially when maltreatment began during infancy or persisted across three or more developmental periods.
Key findings
- Maltreated children had lower inhibitory control/working memory composite scores than nonmaltreated children (M = −0.11, SD = .85 vs. M = .08, SD = .82; F(1, 358) = 9.602, p = .002, η² = .026). No significant group differences appeared for memory, motor control/attention, or the overall cognitive composite.
- Chronicity mattered: children maltreated across three or more developmental periods scored lower than nonmaltreated children (M = −.42, SD = .96, p = .000) and lower than the one-period group (p = .05). One- and two-period groups did not differ significantly from nonmaltreated children.
- Onset and recency mattered: infancy-onset maltreatment was associated with lower scores than nonmaltreated status (M = −.32, SD = .91, p = .000) and later onset (p = .036); later onset did not differ from nonmaltreated. Nonmaltreated children outperformed both current-period and past maltreatment groups (p = .004 and p = .05), while current versus past maltreatment did not differ.
- Subtype count showed both one/two and three/four subtype groups performing worse than nonmaltreated children (p = .021 and p = .002), but the two maltreated groups did not differ from each other (p = .08). At age 4, maltreated children failed the tapping pretest more often (76.3% vs. 40.9%; χ² = 8.174, p = .004).
Methods
- Cross-sectional comparison of 3- to 9-year-old low-SES children from urban upstate New York. Maltreated children were identified through Department of Human Services/Child Protective Services records and maternal interview; nonmaltreated comparison children were recruited from TANF families with no DHS involvement. The abstract reports 136 nonmaltreated and 223 maltreated children, while the Method section reports 228 maltreated and 142 nonmaltreated children; follow-up analyses use 136 comparison children.
- Ten neuropsychological tasks assessed inhibitory control/working memory, memory, attention, and motor control. Standardized task variables were combined into inhibitory control/working memory, memory, motor control/attention, and cognitive function composites. ANCOVAs with age in months as a covariate compared groups, and follow-up tests examined maltreatment onset, chronicity, recency, and subtype count on inhibitory control/working memory.
Limitations
- Stated: the design was cross-sectional with assessment at only one time point, so developmental timing and change could not be directly observed; the author calls for longitudinal and fMRI research.
- Evident from the text: sample-size figures differ between the abstract/Method and the analysis samples; subtype analyses had a small three-or-more-subtype group (n = 34); the low-SES urban sample may limit generalizability; pretest failures excluded task-specific data; and causal claims cannot be established from the design.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“children who were maltreated during infancy, and children with a chronic history of maltreatment, exhibited significantly poorer inhibitory control and working memory performance than children without a history of maltreatment.”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Maltreated children performed more poorly on inhibitory control and working memory tasks than nonmaltreated children.”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“children who were maltreated during infancy, and children with a chronic history of maltreatment, exhibited significantly poorer inhibitory control and working memory performance than children without a history of maltreatment.”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A one-way between factors ANCOVA with age as a covariate revealed no significant differences between the maltreated children (M = .01, SD = .45) and the nonmaltreated comparison children (M = −.01, SD = .39) on the memory composite (F (1, 357) = .192, p = .662, eta2 = .001).”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Results > Cognitive Function Task Performance
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A one-way between factors ANCOVA with age as a covariate revealed a significant group difference between the maltreated children and the nonmaltreated comparison children (F (1, 358) = 9.602, MSE = .325, p = .002, eta2 = .026).”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Function Task Performance · plain
“The maltreated children had a significantly lower ICWM score (M = .-0.11, SD = .85 ) than the nonmaltreated comparison children (M = .08, SD = .82).”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Results > Cognitive Function Task Performance
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Children who passed the pretests conceptually understood the tasks.
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Function Task Performance · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A one-way between factors ANCOVA with age as a covariate revealed no significant differences between the maltreatment children (M = −.00, SD = .58) and the nonmaltreated comparison children (M = −.00, SD = .61) on the motor control/attention composite (F (1, 369) = .00, p = .998, eta2 = .00).”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Results > Cognitive Function Task Performance
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- The authors state this as an assumption: Children who passed 67% of the motor control/attention tasks had a general understanding of the tasks.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition, those children who experienced the onset of maltreatment after infancy also performed significantly better than those who experienced the onset of maltreatment during infancy (p = .036; see Figure 3 for onset of maltreatment means).”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Results > Cognitive Function Task Performance
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Children who passed the pretests conceptually understood the tasks.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“three-year-olds from both groups had a greater rate of failure than any other age group on the Tapping Task, the Three Pegs Task, the Day-Night Stroop-Like Task, and the Control Stroop Task.”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Results > Pretest performance
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A one way ANCOVA with age as a covariate revealed a significant effect for the recency of children’s maltreatment experience (F (2, 322) = 4.717, MSE = .322, p = .010).”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Results > Cognitive Function Task Performance
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Children who passed the pretests conceptually understood the tasks.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Maltreated children experiencing one or two types of maltreatment were not significantly different in their performance compared to children experiencing three or four types of maltreatment (p = .08).”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Results > Cognitive Function Task Performance
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Children who passed the pretests conceptually understood the tasks.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 30
- Probably not a substantial claim. 14
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Group differences between maltreated children based on the timing of maltreatment and the chronicity of maltreatment also were evident.”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this maltreated sample, 66% had been neglected, 57% had experienced emotional maltreatment, 24% had been physically abused, and 7% of had been sexually abused. Within the maltreated sample, 11% of children did not have sufficient detail in the family DHS records to code subtype. Over half (54%) of maltreated children had experienced multiple subtypes of maltreatment.”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Method > Participants
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In our sample, 153 children experienced one or two maltreatment subtypes, and only 34 children experienced three or more maltreatment subtypes.”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition, those who experienced maltreatment during one developmental period (M = .07, SD = .76) performed significantly better than those who experienced maltreatment during three or more developmental periods (p = .05), but not those who experienced maltreatment during two developmental periods (ns; see Figure 2 for chronicity of maltreatment means).”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Results > Cognitive Function Task Performance
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Children who passed the pretests conceptually understood the tasks.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Post hoc follow up LSD tests revealed that the nonmaltreated comparison group performed significantly better than those children who experienced maltreatment during three or more developmental periods (M = −.42, SD = .96, p = .000), but not children who experienced maltreatment during one (M = .07, SD = .76, ns) or two developmental periods (M = .02, SD = .74, ns).”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Results > Cognitive Function Task Performance
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Children who passed the pretests conceptually understood the tasks.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Post hoc follow up LSD tests demonstrated that the nonmaltreated comparison children performed significantly better than those who experienced the onset of maltreatment during infancy (M = −.32, SD = .91, p = .000), but not those experienced the onset after infancy (M = .09, SD = .74, ns).”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Results > Cognitive Function Task Performance
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Children who passed the pretests conceptually understood the tasks.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results suggest that maltreatment occurring during infancy, a period of major brain organization, disrupts normative structure and function, and these deficits are further instantiated by the prolonged stress of chronic maltreatment during the early years of life.”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Children with lower self-control also are more vulnerable to negative developmental outcomes in adolescence, such as a greater likelihood of becoming a teenage parent or dropping out of high school (Moffitt et al., 2011).”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Moffitt et al., 2011
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Early child neglect has been shown to be related to diffuse organization of white matter microstructure in PFC in adolescents, and this has been associated with neurocognitive deficits on tasks that involve assessments of cognitive control, behavioral regulation, and spatial planning (Hanson et al., 2013).”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hanson et al., 2013
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Because maltreatment is a pervasive and prevalent occurrence in the United States (Sedlak et al., 2010), a clearer understanding of how it impacts self-control likely will have far reaching implications.”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Sedlak et al., 2010
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The administrators and videotape coders were unaware of group membership of the children.”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Method > Procedures
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Those with a history of being institutionalized also displayed the smallest difference in reactivity between correct and error trials via the error-related negativity (ERN) brain wave difference score, indicating that they processed mistakes more slowly or less accurately than their more fortunate counterparts (McDermott et al., 2012).”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites McDermott et al., 2012
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Developmental neuroscientists generally agree that the brain is more malleable at early stages of development, with the greatest amount of growth and change happening prenatally and during the first year of life (Fox, Levitt, & Nelson, 2010; Stiles & Jernigan, 2010; Thompson & Nelson, 2001).”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Fox, Levitt, & Nelson, 2010
- Not checked yetcites Stiles & Jernigan, 2010
- Not checked yetcites Thompson & Nelson, 2001
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In a longitudinal study conducted with a cohort of 1,000 children, low self-control was associated with poorer physical health, increased substance dependence, greater financial struggles, and lower income in adulthood (Moffitt et al., 2011).”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Moffitt et al., 2011
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In animal studies, early life stress has been found to be associated with compromised function of the prefrontal cortex in rodents (Sullivan, 2003) and neurochemical alterations in Bonnet macaques (Mathew et al., 2002).”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Sullivan, 2003
- Not checked yetcites Mathew et al., 2002
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The rapid neuronal changes during the first year of life may provide one explanation for this difference, as this period of neuronal growth is thought to increase the brain’s sensitivity to external perturbations (Johnson, 2011).”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Johnson, 2011
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The demographic features were comparable between the nonmaltreated and maltreated children, including gender, χ2 (1, = 370), = .38, ns, (57.7% vs. 61.0% male), and minority race / ethnicity χ2 (1, N = 370) =.77. ns. (73.0% vs. 77.1%), for nonmaltreated and maltreated groups, respectively.”
- Also stated in: § Participants · plain
“The nonmaltreated and maltreated groups also were comparable in terms of family income (in thousands), t (354)=.78, ns. (M=19.01, SD=10.9 vs. M=18.11, SD=10.3), representation in the two lowest levels of the Hollingshead scale of socioeconomic status χ2 (1, N=360) =1.47. ns. (74.5% vs. 79.9%), and history of receipt of public assistance, χ2 (1, N=358) =.84, ns. (91.5% vs. 94.0%).”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Method > Participants
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 370Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Participants · plain
In the paper
“One general theory that may lend insight into why atypical activation occurs in these regions is Johnson’s proposed model of Interactive Specialization, which states that some cortical regions have broad functionality and their functions do not become well defined until, through a sufficient amount of activation and successful competition with other regions, they become functionally efficient (Joh”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Johnson, 2011
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Importantly, self-control is considered a relatively stable trait across the lifespan (Casey et al., 2011), and understanding whether and how self-control can be influenced during development represents a significant area for researchers, clinicians, and policymakers alike.”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Casey et al., 2011
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Searches to assure the absence of CPS or Preventive Services records were conducted to confirm nonmaltreatment status. Nonmaltreatment status was further verified by maternal report, using the MMCI interview.”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Method > Participants
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A consideration of how both onset and duration of maltreatment significantly impact cognitive control performance (both inhibitory control and working memory) provides a rich account of how early experiences may inform the development of self-control processes.”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To allow for an examination of cognitive performance over and above the effects of age, a participant’s age in months was included as a continuous covariate for all following analyses.”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Results > Pretest performance
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On-line coding of the participant’s and experimenter’s actions, such as response accuracy, was always rechecked by subsequent coding of the videotape to confirm accurate coding. Any discrepancies were resolved to consensus.”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Method > Procedures
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Maltreatment in infancy represents a clear case of early life stress, as it exceeds the infant’s coping resources and increases the amount of stress experienced at a sensitive period of development (Pechtel & Pizzagalli, 2011).”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Pechtel & Pizzagalli, 2011
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Before testing, the child had to first demonstrate an understanding of the directions by recognizing at least 1 “day” and 1 “night” card in a row. The child needed to have answered each rule correctly at least once during either the two practice trials or the first two trials of testing for his/her data to be considered usable.”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Method > Measures
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, discovering that children maltreated during infancy had significantly worse performance than children maltreated later in childhood indicates that timing of adversity matters in the development of self-control.”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This system has been previously reported as reliable and valid in classifying incidents of maltreatment and in differentiating subtypes of maltreatment (e.g., Bolger & Patterson, 2001; Manly, Kim, Rogosch, & Cichetti, 2001).”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Method > Participants
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bolger & Patterson, 2001
- Not checked yetcites Manly, Kim, Rogosch, & Cichetti, 2001 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Trained research staff coded the DHS records, and adequate reliability was obtained (average ICC’s ranged from .82 to 1.0).”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Method > Participants
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Foster care children showed more diffuse patterns of activation, and displayed stronger activation in the left inferior parietal lobule and the right superior occipital cortex; moreover, compared to nonmaltreated children, they also demonstrated less activation in regions typically associated with inhibitory control performance, such as the anterior cingulate cortex (Bruce et al., 2013).”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bruce et al., 2013
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“A longer history of maltreatment results in prolonged period of stress on the child’s neuroendocrine and immune systems and possible neural reorganization to optimize survival in a deprived and difficult environment (Johnson, 2011; Teicher et al., 2003).”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Johnson, 2011
- Not checked yetcites Teicher et al., 2003
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A limitation of the current investigation is the cross-sectional nature of the design with assessment of children at only one point in time.”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“may be indistinguishable from their SES-matched nonmaltreated counterparts.”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Discussion
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Numerous interconnected neurobiological systems are affected by the various stressors associated with child maltreatment (DeBellis, 2001, 2005; Hart & Rubia, 2012).”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites DeBellis, 2001, 2005
- Not checked yetcites Hart & Rubia, 2012
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Early onset of maltreatment not only significantly predicted inhibitory control and working memory performance, but also so did the chronicity of maltreatment.”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In fact, a phenomena like joint attention, in which an infant and caregiver both attend to the same stimuli (Tomasello, 1995), presents an infant with the experience that cues, such as eye gaze, are important for knowing what to attend to in his/her environment.”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tomasello, 1995
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The density of the synapses in the prefrontal cortex increases slowly over the course of development, and the experience of prolonged maltreatment may compromise synaptogenesis (Johnson, 2011).”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Johnson, 2011
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, if maltreatment occurred solely during one period of development, then the child’s inhibitory control and working memory capacities remained intact, more closely resembling a nonmaltreated child’s profile than that of a child who experienced chronic maltreatment.”
§ Childhood Maltreatment and Its Effect on Neurocognitive Functioning: Timing and Chronicity Matter > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Best practices for promoting self-control, and the key developmental periods for doing so, are not yet established.
“Yet knowledge on best practices for fostering self-control, including a focus on critical time points for nurturing optimal development, must still be identified.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Early childhood maltreatment produces cascading effects across neurobiological, social, emotional, and cognitive domains.
“Maltreatment in early childhood has been shown to have cascading effects on neurobiological, social, emotional, and cognitive development.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The maltreated children are representative of county DHS service families in terms of low income and minority racial/ethnic status.
“The maltreated sample was representative of families receiving services at the country DHS with respect to low-income and minority racial/ethnic status.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The DHS records used provide accurate information about when maltreatment occurred, how long it lasted, and its subtype.
“Maltreatment status was determined through a detailed examination of Child Protective Service (CPS) and Preventive Services records at DHS.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Children who passed the pretests conceptually understood the tasks.
“Initially, chi-squared analyses were conducted to assess performance differences on tasks that include pre-tests in order to ascertain whether children conceptually understand the task.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Children who passed 67% of the motor control/attention tasks had a general understanding of the tasks.
“This allowed for the assumption that children had a general understanding of the tasks.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The line bisection task measures spatial perception.
“The line bisection task measures spatial perception.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The number of developmental periods in which maltreatment occurred is a valid index of chronicity.
“The number of developmental periods in which the child was maltreated was used as an index of chronicity.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Maltreatment onset during infancy versus after infancy is a valid index of timing.
“Onset of maltreatment was examined in relation to the ICWM. Children whose maltreatment onset occurred during infancy (n = 101) were differentiated from those children whose maltreatment onset occurred after infancy (n = 86).”
The paper relies on this without support.
Each neurobiological system influences and is influenced by multiple domains of biological and psychological development.
“Moreover, each of these neurobiological systems influences and is influenced by multiple domains of biological and psychological development.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The child-caregiver relationship plays an important role because the precursor of higher cognition during infancy is connecting an act to a consequence.
“The child-caregiver relationship may also play an important role because the precursor of higher cognition during infancy is connecting an act to a consequence.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“An emerging literature also suggests childhood trauma exposure during specific phases of development is important to later neurobiological functioning (Andersen et al., 2008; Cowell et al., 2015; Gee and Casey, 2015; Kuhlman et al., 2015)”
From Developmental psychoneuroendocrine and psychoneuroimmune pathways from childhood adversity to disease (2017) · cites this paper as Cowell et al., 2015
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Consistentt(354) = 0.78reported n.s. · recomputed p = .436
“t (354)=.78, ns.”
- Consistentχ²(1) = 0.84reported n.s. · recomputed p = .359
“χ2 (1, N=358) =.84, ns.”
- Consistentχ²(1) = 8.174reported p = .004 · recomputed p = .004
“χ2 (1, N= 65) = 8.174, p = .004”
- ConsistentF(5, 358) = 29.92reported p = 0 · recomputed p < .001
“F (5, 358) = 29.92, p = .00”
- ConsistentF(1, 357) = 0.192reported p = .662 · recomputed p = .662
“F (1, 357) = .192, p = .662”
- ConsistentF(1, 369) = 0reported p = .998 · recomputed p = 1.000
“F (1, 369) = .00, p = .998”
- ConsistentF(1, 358) = 1.427reported p = .233 · recomputed p = .233
“F (1, 358) = 1.427, p = .233”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Age-four failure percentages cannot come from the stated sample size
MinorWith integer group sizes totaling 65, the two failure rates cannot both round to 76.3% and 40.9%. Within that sample-size limit, 76.3% requires a denominator of 38 or 59, while 40.9% requires 22 or 44; no pair totals 65.
“At age four, maltreated children (76.3%) failed to pass the Tapping Task significantly more often than the nonmaltreated comparison children (40.9%)”
“(χ2 (1, N= 65) = 8.174, p = .004; see Figure 1 for group failure rates on the Tapping Task).”
Motor-control ANCOVA has too many residual degrees of freedom
MinorThe initial sample contains 370 children. Even if every child were included, an ANCOVA with a group effect and an age covariate could have at most 367 residual degrees of freedom, rather than 369.
“A one-way between factors ANCOVA with age as a covariate revealed no significant differences between the maltreatment children (M = −.00, SD = .58) and the nonmaltreated comparison children (M = −.00, SD = .61) on the motor control/attention composite (F (1, 369) = .00, p = .998, eta2 = .00).”
“The sample included 228 maltreated low-SES children (89 females, 139 males) and 142 nonmaltreated low-SES comparison children (60 females, 82 males)”
Chronicity ANCOVA residual degrees of freedom exceed those allowed by its groups
MinorThe three maltreated groups contain 187 children; adding the stated nonmaltreated group of 136 gives 323. An ANCOVA with four groups and an age covariate would have 318 residual degrees of freedom, not 322.
“A one-way ANCOVA with age as a covariate revealed a significant effect for the number of developmental periods in which maltreatment occurred (F (3, 322) = 4.385, MSE = .330, p = .005).”
“Three separate maltreatment groups were generated, including those who experienced maltreatment during one developmental period (n = 68), two developmental periods (n = 47), or three or more developmental periods (n = 72).”
Subtype comparison has the wrong numerator degrees of freedom
MinorThe reported test compares two maltreatment groups with a nonmaltreated group. An omnibus group effect across three groups has two numerator degrees of freedom, not the reported one.
“A one-way ANCOVA with age as a covariate revealed a significant effect for the number of maltreatment subtypes (F (1, 322) = 5.890, MSE = .330, p = .003).”
“Both maltreatment groups were compared to the nonmaltreated comparison group (n = 136).”
Task categories add up to nine, not ten
MinorThe stated categories contain 3 + 4 + 2 = 9 tasks, whereas the sentence says all children were tested on 10.
Reported 10 · recomputed 9
“All children were tested on 10 tasks (three working memory and inhibition tasks, four memory tasks, and two motor tasks).”
Citations
Cites
Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition
Lupien, S. J., McEwen, B. S., Gunnar, M. R., & Heim, C. (2009) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn2639 · Cited by 6,256
A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety
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“Children with lower self-control also are more vulnerable to negative developmental outcomes in adolescence, such as a greater likelihood of becoming a teenage parent or dropping out of high school (Moffitt et al., 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe basics of brain development
Stiles, J., & Jernigan, T. L. (2010) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-010-9148-4 · Cited by 2,009 · cited 1×
“Developmental neuroscientists generally agree that the brain is more malleable at early stages of development, with the greatest amount of growth and change happening prenatally and during the first year of life (Fox, Levitt, & Nelson, 2010; Stiles & Jernigan, 2010; Thompson & Nelson, 2001).”
BackgroundEquifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopathology
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1996) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579400007318 · Cited by 1,842 · cited 1×
“The aberrant neuronal circuitry most likely contributes to the multifinal phenotypes observed in maltreated individuals (Cicchetti & Rogosch, 1996).”
BackgroundSelf-citationMasten, A. S., & Cicchetti, D. (2010) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579410000222 · Cited by 1,800 · cited 1×
“…effects through later development, possibly constraining the child’s flexibility to adapt to novel challenging situations with new strategies rather than with old conceptual and behavioral prototypes (Cicchetti & Tucker, 1994; Courchesne, Chisum, & Townsend, 1994; Masten & Cicchetti, 2010).”
BackgroundSelf-citationA facile soft-template synthesis of mesoporous polymeric and carbonaceous nanospheres
Liu, J., Yang, T., Wang, D., Lu, G. Q., Zhao, D., & Qiao, S. (2013) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms3798 · Cited by 1,613
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“The control version of the day–night Stroop-like task (Gerstadt et al., 1994) also required participants to hold two rules in mind; however, an inhibitory response was not expected in the Stroop-like task because abstract designs were used.”
MethodThe neurobiological consequences of early stress and childhood maltreatment
Teicher, M. H., Andersen, S. L., Polcari, A., Anderson, C. M., Navalta, C. P., & Kim, D. M. (2003) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/s0149-7634(03)00007-1 · Cited by 1,465 · cited 3×
“This early stress increases the density of glucocorticoid receptors (Teicher et al., 2003).”
BackgroundHot and Cool Executive Function in Childhood and Adolescence: Development and Plasticity
Zelazo, P. D., & Carlson, S. M. (2012) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00246.x · Cited by 1,403 · cited 1×
“A first step in extending this work would be to examine the relationship between maltreatment and executive function in adolescence and to consider executive function in either a cool or hot context (Zelazo & Carlson, 2012).”
BackgroundPechtel, P., & Pizzagalli, D. A. (2011) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-010-2009-2 · Cited by 1,352 · cited 1×
“Maltreatment in infancy represents a clear case of early life stress, because it exceeds the infant’s coping resources and increases the amount of stress experienced at a sensitive period of development (Pechtel & Pizzagalli, 2011).”
Background
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 68 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 4
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- Cicchetti, Handbook of child psychology and developmental science: Vol. 3. Socioemotional process
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Cited by
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Maltreatment and Emotional Development
Harms, M. B., Leitzke, B. T., & Pollak, S. D. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-17332-6_28 · Cited by 18
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Let it go, let it go: Stop measuring child maltreatment as a binary yes/no
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Cohodes, E. M., Chen, S. H., Lieberman, A. F., & Bush, N. R. (2020) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104635 · Cited by 16
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Brain structure in childhood maltreatment-related PTSD across the lifespan: A systematic review
Killion, B., & Weyandt, L. L. (2018) · Applied Neuropsychology Child · doi:10.1080/21622965.2018.1515076 · Cited by 18
Emotional, Behavioural and Executive Functioning Problems in Children in Residential Care
Manso, J. M. M., Sánchez, M. E. G.-B., Barona, E. J. G., Merino, M. J. G., Bueso‐Izquierdo, N., & Guerrero‐Molina, M. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17103596 · Cited by 17
Sánchez-Vincitore, L. V., & Castro, A. (2022) · PLOS Global Public Health · doi:10.1371/journal.pgph.0000465 · Cited by 15
Child maltreatment and resilience in adulthood: a protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis
Fares‐Otero, N. E., Jiaqing, O., Spies, G., Womersley, J. S., González, C., Ayas, G., Mossie, T. B., Carranza-Neira, J., Lorenzo, J. M. E., Vieta, E., et al. (2023) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008066.2023.2282826 · Cited by 17
Lakkireddy, S. P., Balachander, S., Dayalamurthy, P., Bhattacharya, M., Joseph, M. S., Kumar, P., Kannampuzha, A. J., Mallappagari, S., Narayana, S., Alexander, A. C., et al. (2022) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2022.110620 · Cited by 20
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Self-citationDifferences in Executive Functions in Minors Suffering Physical Abuse and Neglect
Manso, J. M. M., García-Baamonde, M. E., Murillo, M. D. L. R., Alonso, M. B., Barona, E. J. G., & Gómez, A. G. (2020) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260520944528 · Cited by 17
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Rokita, K., Dauvermann, M. R., Mothersill, D., Holleran, L., Bhatnagar, P., McNicholas, Á., McKernan, D. P., Morris, D. W., Kelly, J. P., Hallahan, B. P., et al. (2021) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2021.08.030 · Cited by 15
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Metadata
- Authors
- Cowell, R. A., Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Toth, S. L.
- Affiliations
- University of Minnesota (US)
- University of Rochester (US)
- Corresponding author
- Cowell, Raquel A.
- Cicchetti, Dante
- Venue
- Development and Psychopathology
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2015-05
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 521-533
- ISSN
- 0954-5794 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-2198
- PMC
- PMC4443870
- OpenAlex
- W2254866800
- Cited by
- 307
- References
- 68
- Citations by year
- 2026: 29 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 31 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 32 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 24 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 24 · 2017: 28 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 2
- FWCI
- 27.11
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Development and Psychopathology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- University of Minnesota
- National Institutes of Health (5r01mh083979-04)
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01‐MH083979)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (R01DA017741)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (T32HD007151)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Child Welfare and Adoption
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- child abuse, neurocognitive function, inhibitory control, working memory, developmental timing, infancy, early childhood, stress, cognitive impairment
- MeSH terms
- Age Factors, Brain, Child, Child Abuse, Child, Preschool, Cognition, Female, Humans, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Neuropsychological Tests
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