Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: implications for theory and practice
Open accessAbstract
This article presents a comparative analysis of five quasi-experimental studies involving close to 1,200 students, ranging in age from 7 to 14, in 49 French immersion classrooms in Canada – a content-based instructional context where learners develop high levels of communicative ability yet demonstrate a levelling-off effect in their grammatical development. The studies investigated the effects of form-focused instruction on four areas known to be difficult for anglophone learners of French: perfect vs. imperfect past tense, conditional mood, second-person pronouns and grammatical gender. Findings suggest that effective form-focused instruction in immersion contexts, at least with respect to interlanguage features that have reached a developmental plateau, includes a balanced distribution of opportunities for noticing, language awareness and controlled practice with feedback. Less effective instructional options overemphasise negotiation for meaning in oral tasks where message comprehensibility and communication strategies circumvent the need for learners to move beyond the use of interlanguage forms.
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Claims the paper makes
7 of 94 cited sources checked · 3 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
Reviews of empirical studies show that explicit attention to form in communicative contexts is more effective than implicit and incidental language learning.
“yet reviews of empirical studies show that explicit attention to form in communicative contexts is more effective (Spada, 1997;Norris and Ortega, 2000).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked- cites Spada, 1997 source
- cites Norris and Ortega, 2000 source
The supplied passages and further searches for explicit versus implicit instruction, incidental learning, and Norris and Ortega do not address the claimed comparison. The indexed text is headed “Self-Monitoring and Self-Reflection in an English Blended Learning Environment,” rather than the cited paper, so this copy cannot verify what Norris and Ortega (2000) concluded. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
The development of an accurate system of second-person reference in French is not a straightforward process for young anglophone learners of French in early immersion classrooms.
“The development of an accurate system of second-person reference in French is not a straightforward process for young anglophone learners of French in early immersion classrooms (Swain and Lapkin, 1990;Lyster and Rebuffot, 2002).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked- cites Swain and Lapkin, 1990
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Lyster and Rebuffot, 2002 source
- Premisecitation
Recent classroom observation studies have shown that meaningful interaction related to content is typical of immersion classroom discourse.
“Recent classroom observation studies (e.g., Lyster and Ranta, 1997;Lyster, 1998;2002) have shown that meaningful interaction related to content is typical of immersion classroom discourse.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked- cites Lyster and Ranta, 1997 source
- cites Lyster, 1998 source
The available copy yields only a title and download notices, with no substantive passage to assess the claim. Searches for meaningful content-related interaction and immersion classroom discourse found no matching text, so the claim cannot be verified from this copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites [2002]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisereasoning
tu is the second-person pronoun used almost exclusively by many immersion students.
“By far the most frequent of the two forms, as well as the one with simpler verb forms, tu is the secondperson pronoun used almost exclusively by many immersion students”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Dewaele, 2002 source
Section 2.2 quotes an observation that some French second-language learners use tu almost exclusively. It does not establish that this is true of many immersion students: the immersion study discussed in the same section concerns improvement in the use of vous. The cited passages also do not establish that tu is by far the more frequent form or has simpler verb forms. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Findingnone given
In the studies of grammatical gender and second-person pronouns, significant effects were not neutralised by comparison group improvement.
“This was not the case in studies of grammatical gender and second-person pronouns.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingown data
Instruction on grammatical gender with older learners in Grade 5 yielded significant long-term improvement for all groups exposed to form-focused instruction on three of the four measures.
“Instruction on grammatical gender with older learners in Grade 5 yielded significant long-term improvement for all groups exposed to form-focused instruction on three of the four measures”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five quasi-experimental studies are sufficiently comparable in design, measures, and contexts to permit a comparative synthesis of their effects.
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
- Findingcitation
In the Harley (1989) and Day and Shapson (1991) studies, comparison teachers reported that they were also teaching the target forms.
“in both the Harley (1989) study and the Day and Shapson (1991) study, comparison teachers reported that they too were teaching the target forms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Findingnone given
Instruction on sociostylistic variation with emphasis on second-person pronouns yielded short- and long-term improvement on all measures.
“Instruction on sociostylistic variation with emphasis on second-person pronouns yielded short-and long-term improvement on all measures.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five quasi-experimental studies are sufficiently comparable in design, measures, and contexts to permit a comparative synthesis of their effects.
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
- Findingown data
Some predictors of grammatical gender are primarily orthographic, showing up in the spelling of suffixes.
“Some predictors are primarily orthographic, showing up in the spelling of suffixes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In a recent analysis of over 10,000 nouns in Le Robert Junior Illustré, organized according to some 100 endings that are either reliably feminine, reliably masculine, or ambiguous, the author found that 80 per cent of feminine nouns and 80 per cent of masculine nouns have endings that reliably predict their grammatical gender.
“In a recent analysis of over 10,000 nouns in Le Robert Junior Illustré, organized according to some 100 endings that are either reliably feminine, reliably masculine, or ambiguous, I found that 80 per cent of feminine nouns and 80 per cent of masculine nouns have endings that reliably predict their grammatical gender (Lyster, 2004a).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Lyster, 2004a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Findingcitation
Activities engaging learners in noticing, language awareness and practice were unevenly distributed throughout the instructional units in the Harley and Day and Shapson studies.
“Activities engaging learners in noticing, language awareness and practice were unevenly distributed throughout the instructional units in these two studies.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Findingcitation
In the Harley (1989) study, the focus on form during oral activities was superseded by more spontaneous expression and the use of simplified forms.
“As in the Harley (1989) study, therefore, the focus on form during the oral activities was superseded by more spontaneous expression and the use of simplified forms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Harley (1989) source
- Interpretationreasoning
Language features noticed during communicative interaction may be more easily retrieved in communicative contexts.
“Conversely, language features noticed during communicative interaction may be more easily retrieved in communicative contexts.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Less effective instructional options overemphasise negotiation for meaning in oral tasks where message comprehensibility and communication strategies circumvent the need for learners to move beyond the use of interlanguage forms.
“Less effective instructional options overemphasise negotiation for meaning in oral tasks where message comprehensibility and communication strategies circumvent the need for learners to move beyond the use of interlanguage forms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five quasi-experimental studies are sufficiently comparable in design, measures, and contexts to permit a comparative synthesis of their effects.
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
- Rests on an assumption: The findings from the five studies can be generalized to French immersion classrooms in Canada more broadly.
- Interpretationown data
Effective form-focused instruction in immersion contexts, at least for interlanguage features that have reached a developmental plateau, includes a balanced distribution of opportunities for noticing, language awareness, and controlled practice with feedback.
“Findings suggest that effective form-focused instruction in immersion contexts, at least with respect to interlanguage features that have reached a developmental plateau, includes a balanced distribution of opportunities for noticing, language awareness and controlled practice with feedback.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five quasi-experimental studies are sufficiently comparable in design, measures, and contexts to permit a comparative synthesis of their effects.
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
- Rests on an assumption: The findings from the five studies can be generalized to French immersion classrooms in Canada more broadly.
- Interpretationcitation
It proved more difficult to alter automatised routines in speaking than in writing.
“In other words, it proved more difficult to alter automatised routines in speaking than in writing.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Day and Shapson (1991) found that the experimental group maintained these significant gains at the time of delayed post testing eleven weeks later.
“and then maintained these significant gains at the time of delayed post testing eleven weeks later.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Day and Shapson, 1991 source
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
- Premisecitation
Decontextualised grammar lessons appear to have minimal effect in classrooms where learners' exposure to the L2 has been primarily message-oriented.
“The latter emphasise the learning and categorising of forms rather than relating these forms to their communicative functions and appear to have minimal effect in classrooms where learners' exposure to the L2 has been primarily message-oriented (Swain, 1996).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Swain, 1996 source
- Premisecitation
The transition from controlled to more automatic processing results from repeated practice in transforming declarative representations into production rules.
“The transition from controlled to more automatic processing results from repeated practice in transforming declarative representations into production rules (DeKeyser, 1998).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites DeKeyser, 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationcitation
Helping learners develop new targetlike representations that can compete with interlanguage forms necessarily requires incorporating a larger role for form-focused instruction.
“The challenge is to help learners develop new targetlike representations which can compete with the interlanguage forms (Ranta and Lyster, 2004).This necessarily requires incorporating a larger role for form-focused instruction.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ranta and Lyster, 2004
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
Isolated grammar lessons may have only minimal effects in these contexts because learners exposed to language instruction separately from meaningful language use are more likely to treat language instruction as separate from language use (transfer-appropriate learning).
“Lightbown (1998) suggests that isolated grammar lessons may have only minimal effects in these contexts because learners exposed to language 'instruction' separately from meaningful language 'use' are indeed more likely to learn to treat language instruction as separate from language use; this is called transfer-appropriate learning (Segalowitz, 1997).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Lightbown, 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Segalowitz, 1997
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
Conditional verb forms are rare in the natural talk of immersion teachers, comprising on average only about 3 per cent of all finite verbs used.
“One observation study of several immersion classrooms (reported in Swain, 1996) showed that conditional verb forms were rare in the natural talk of immersion teachers, comprising on average only about 3 per cent of all finite verbs used.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Swain, 1996 source
- Premisecitation
Changing students' tendency to use highly accessible interlanguage forms is difficult because automatic processes occur rapidly and are difficult to suppress or alter.
“Changing students' tendency to use highly accessible interlanguage forms is no small undertaking, because, once learned, 'an automatic process occurs rapidly and is difficult to suppress or alter' (McLaughlin, 1987: 134).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites McLaughlin, 1987
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisereasoning
Form-focused instructional activities are generally considered most effective when embedded in communicative contexts.
“Accordingly, form-focused instructional activities are generally considered most effective when embedded in communicative contexts”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Lightbown, 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Ellis, 2002
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
The interaction hypothesis is an unlikely candidate for explaining instructed L2 development, especially in classroom contexts where mutual comprehension of interlanguage forms reduces the need to negotiate for meaning.
“Thus, the interaction hypothesis is an unlikely candidate for explaining instructed L2 development, especially in classroom contexts where mutual comprehension of interlanguage forms reduces the need to negotiate for meaning.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
There is still little direct evidence that conversational moves used to negotiate meaning actually drive L2 development forward by effecting changes to the underlying interlanguage system.
“However, there is still little direct evidence that conversational moves used to negotiate meaning actually drive L2 development forward by effecting changes to the underlying interlanguage system (Braidi, 1995;Skehan, 1998;Carroll, 1999).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
Immersion contexts lend themselves particularly well to research into form-focused instruction because they require novel ways of focusing on form to counter the persistence of interlanguage forms in immersion students' productive repertoire.
“Immersion contexts lend themselves particularly well to research into formfocused instruction, because they require novel ways of focusing on form in primarily experiential contexts to counter the persistence of interlanguage forms in immersion students' productive repertoire.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
In Harley (1989), three months later on the delayed post test, no significant differences were found between the groups on any of the measures.
“Three months later, on the delayed post test, no significant differences were found between the groups on any of the measures.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Harley, 1989 source
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
- Interpretationreasoning
In cases like Harley's, more meaningful content-based interaction may not be what immersion students need to be pushed in their interlanguage development.
“In cases like these, more meaningful content-based interaction may not be what immersion students need to be pushed in their interlanguage development.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Harley's instructional treatment may have overemphasised production activities at the expense of activities promoting noticing and language awareness.
“Overall, the instructional treatment may have overemphasised production activities at the expense of more activities promoting noticing and language awareness.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Harley (1989) source
- Premisecitation
There exists considerable evidence, both corpus-based and psycholinguistic, suggesting that gender attribution is largely rule-driven and based on word-internal structural properties.
“Yet there exists considerable evidence, both corpus-based (e.g., Tucker, Lambert and Rigault, 1977) and psycholinguistic (e.g., Karmiloff-Smith, 1979), suggesting instead that gender attribution is largely rule-driven and based on word-internal structural properties.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Tucker, Lambert and Rigault, 1977 source
- cites Karmiloff-Smith, 1979
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
In the absence of negative evidence, and although the all-encompassing function of tu occurs only minimally in the input, young L2 learners are induced to over-generalise the functions of tu because it corresponds with their cognitive predisposition for selectively attending to only one second-person pronoun, equivalent to you.
“In the absence of negative evidence, and although the all-encompassing function of tu occurs only minimally in the input, young L2 learners are induced to over-generalise the functions of tu, because it corresponds precisely with their cognitive predisposition for selectively attending to only one second-person pronoun, equivalent to you.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Form-focused instruction with recasts proved to be only marginally more effective than form-focused instruction without feedback.
“Form-focused instruction with recasts thus proved to be only marginally more effective than form-focused instruction without feedback.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
In both the Harley and Day and Shapson studies, the emphasis on negotiation of meaning and intrinsically motivating content teaching is unlikely to have pushed students to notice and use the target verb forms more accurately.
“I would argue that in both the Harley and Day and Shapson studies the emphasis on negotiation of meaning, along with intrinsically motivating content teaching, is unlikely to have pushed students to notice and to use the target verb forms more accurately.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
Learning second-person pronouns in French does not entail simple binary choices, because of the complexity of social variables, the use of tu to mark indefinite and seemingly plural reference, and the effects of pronoun choice on morphosyntax within and across sentences.
“Even the learning of second-person pronouns in French does not entail simple binary choices when we consider: first, the complexity of social variables that need to be taken into account; second, the use of tu to mark indefinite and seemingly plural reference; and third, the effects of pronoun choice on morphosyntax, again within and across sentences.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
A teacher's use of tu forms with seemingly plural referents provides sufficient positive evidence to young learners of French that tu can serve as an all-encompassing second-person pronoun.
“Although infrequent in the linguistic environment, a teacher's use of tu forms with seemingly plural referents seems to provide sufficient positive evidence to young learners of French that tu can serve as an all-encompassing second-person pronoun.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Skehan's (1998) information-processing model identifies the learner's conscious awareness of rule-based representations as a key factor in interlanguage development.
“Skehan's (1998) information-processing model, which identifies as a key factor in interlanguage development the learner's conscious awareness of rule-based representations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Skehan's (1998)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premisecitation
Harley (1998) found that, relative to students in the six comparison classes, students from the six experimental classes made significant long-term progress as demonstrated by three of the four measures (two aural tasks and an oral picture-description task).
“The study demonstrated that, relative to students in the six comparison classes, students from the six experimental classes made significant long-term progress as demonstrated by three of the four measures (two aural tasks and an oral picturedescription task).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Harley, 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
- Premisecitation
Interlanguage forms that develop as a result of both L1 influence and ambiguous L2 input appear to be especially recalcitrant in homogeneous classrooms where L2 learners share the same L1.
“Interlanguage forms that develop as a result of both L1 influence and ambiguous L2 input appear to be especially recalcitrant in homogeneous classrooms where L2 learners share the same L1 (Lightbown, 1992).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Lightbown, 1992
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Premiseown data
The only measure that did not reveal significant improvement was an oral task requiring students to identify the gender of low-frequency unfamiliar nouns, such as tondeuse, barbotte and sabot.
“The only measure that did not reveal significant improvement was an oral task requiring students to identify the gender of low-frequency unfamiliar nouns, such as tondeuse, barbotte and sabot.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Harley, 1998
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
- Interpretationreasoning
The form-focused instructional options identified as effective are complemented in the immersion context by its communicatively rich backdrop of subject-matter instruction.
“It is indeed important to stress that the form-focused instructional options identified here as effective are complemented in the immersion context by its communicatively rich backdrop of subject-matter instruction.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given
Awareness activities, which include inductive rule-discovery tasks and opportunities to compare and contrast language patterns, followed by different types of metalinguistic information, generally serve to consolidate the restructuring of rule-based declarative representations.
“Awareness activities, which include inductive rulediscovery tasks and opportunities to compare and contrast language patterns, followed by different types of metalinguistic information, generally serve to consolidate the restructuring of rule-based declarative representations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Supported empirically by the studies reviewed, cognitive theory predicts the feasibility of pushing interlanguage development above the plateau by means of form-focused instructional options that include noticing and language awareness activities designed to effect change towards more target-like declarative representations, and practice activities designed in tandem with strategic opportunities
“Supported empirically by the studies reviewed here, cognitive theory predicts the feasibility of pushing interlanguage development above and beyond the plateau by means of formfocused instructional options that include noticing and language awareness activities designed to effect change towards more target-like declarative representations, and practice activities designed in tandem with strategic”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
In the study on conditionals, the task demands did not really create an obligatory context for expressing hypothetical meaning.
“Furthermore, in the case of the study on conditionals, I would suggest that the task demands did not really create an obligatory context for expressing hypothetical meaning.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Day and Shapson (1991) source
- Interpretationreasoning
There was nothing hypothetical about the plan because students actually designed it.
“In other words, there was nothing hypothetical about the plan, because students actually designed it.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given
Noticing activities serve as effective catalysts for drawing learners' attention to problematic target features that have been contrived to appear more salient and/or frequent in oral and written input.
“Noticing activities serve as effective catalysts for drawing learners' attention to problematic target features that have been contrived to appear more salient and/or frequent in oral and written input (for example, by means of typographical enhancement).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
In cases where the areas of linguistic difficulty are well-known sources of persistent errors, communicative practice involving lots of negotiation of meaning is less effective than controlled practice, which allows for more systematic provision of feedback.
“However, the comparative analysis suggests that, in cases where the areas of linguistic difficulty are well-known sources of persistent errors, communicative practice involving lots of negotiation of meaning is less effective than controlled practice, which allows for more systematic provision of feedback.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
The main thematic activities in the Harley and Day and Shapson studies may not have created contexts sufficiently different from other immersion activities.
“Therefore, the main thematic activities in the Harley and Day and Shapson studies may not have created contexts that were sufficiently different from other immersion activities.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Continued reliance on communication strategies and negotiation of message comprehensibility arguably loses its effectiveness, over time, for promoting continued language growth in the immersion classroom context.
“Continued reliance on communication strategies and negotiation of message comprehensibility arguably loses its effectiveness, over time, for promoting continued language growth in the immersion classroom context.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Analysis of instructional options in relation to learning outcomes in the five classroom intervention studies suggests that effective form-focused instruction in immersion contexts incorporates a balanced distribution of activities interweaving opportunities for noticing, language awareness and practice.
“In conclusion, analysis of instructional options in relation to learning outcomes in the five classroom intervention studies suggests that effective form-focused instruction in immersion contexts incorporates a balanced distribution of activities interweaving opportunities for noticing, language awareness and practice.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
By focusing students on meaningful interaction and motivating content, the instructional units in Harley and Day and Shapson may have fallen short of drawing learners' attention to linguistic accuracy any more than is typically the case.
“By focusing students on meaningful interaction and motivating content, the instructional units may have fallen short of drawing learners' attention to linguistic accuracy any more than is typically the case.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Practice activities provide learners with important opportunities to proceduralise their declarative knowledge of emerging target-like forms, in a variety of pedagogical contexts ranging from meaningful collaborative tasks to linguistic games and role plays.
“Practice activities provide learners with important opportunities to proceduralise their declarative knowledge of emerging target-like forms, in a variety of pedagogical contexts ranging from meaningful collaborative tasks at the communicative end of the spectrum of practice activities, to linguistic games and role plays at the other end.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
To drive their interlanguage development forward, immersion learners need to be pushed to access target forms that are in competition with more readily accessible and recalcitrant interlanguage forms.
“To drive their interlanguage development forward, therefore, these learners need to be pushed to access target forms that are in competition with more readily accessible and recalcitrant interlanguage forms (Ranta and Lyster, 2004).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ranta and Lyster, 2004
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 26
- May combine two claims. 44
- The quote only partly states this claim. 6
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe experiential approach driving content-based language instruction effectively promotes incidental language learning, but does not necessarily enable students to acquire specific form-function relationships.
“In this regard, Swain (1988) and Harley (1993) explained that the experiential approach driving content-based language instruction effectively promotes incidental language learning, but does not necessarily enable students to acquire specific form-function relationships.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked- cites Swain, 1988 source
In “Examples of Content Teaching” (page unavailable), Swain says typical content teaching is limited in the form–function relationships it brings into use and needs complementary activities. The paper does not establish that an experiential approach effectively promotes incidental language learning; in its opening discussion (page unavailable), it says the assumption that content learning enhances language learning may need qualification. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites Harley, 1993 source
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationLyster (1994) found that results showed significant gains, both in the short- and long-term, in students' ability to use vous in formal contexts in both written and oral production tasks, and in their awareness of sociolinguistic appropriateness as demonstrated by their performance on multiple-choice tests.
“Results showed significant gains, both in the short-and long-term, in students' ability to use vous in formal contexts in both written and oral production tasks, and in their awareness of sociolinguistic appropriateness as demonstrated by their performance on multiple-choice tests.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Lyster, 1994 source
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.
FindingcitationIn Lyster (1994), significant improvement relative to comparison groups was found immediately and delayed on written production, multiple-choice test, and oral production.
“Lyster | 13-14 | second-person | 12 hrs/ | Written production | yes | yes”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Lyster (1994) source
May combine two claims.
FindingreasoningIn both the Harley (1989) and Day and Shapson (1991) studies, learners in experimental treatments continued to progress, but significant effects were neutralised by improvement in comparison classes.
“In both studies, learners exposed to the experimental treatment did in fact continue to progress throughout the study, but the significant effects were neutralised by improvement made by students in comparison classes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe instructional treatment targeting grammatical gender in Grade 2 resulted in significant short- and long-term improvement for learners on three of the four measures; an oral task that required participants to assign grammatical gender to unfamiliar nouns yielded no significant results.
“The instructional treatment targeting grammatical gender in Grade 2 resulted in significant short-and long-term improvement for learners on three of the four measures; an oral task that required participants to assign grammatical gender to unfamiliar nouns yielded no significant results”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five quasi-experimental studies are sufficiently comparable in design, measures, and contexts to permit a comparative synthesis of their effects.
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
May combine two claims.
FindingreasoningThe five reviewed quasi-experimental classroom studies share the context of French immersion and many essential features of quasi-experimental designs.
“The five studies share the context of French immersion as well as many sine qua non features of quasi-experimental designs.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingcitationIn Harley's study, students had difficulty distinguishing the functional distinctions of the passé composé and imparfait and had not mastered their formal characteristics.
“it was found in the end that, not only did students have difficulty distinguishing the functional distinctions of these two tenses, they had not mastered their formal characteristics either.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Harley (1989) source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Findingnone givenThe suffix -elle is reliably feminine whereas the homophonous ending -el reliably predicts masculine gender.
“For example, the suffix -elle is reliably feminine whereas the homophonous ending -el reliably predicts masculine gender.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingnone givenForm-focused instruction on conditionals yielded short- and long-term significant improvement in written production, but none in oral production.
“Form-focused instruction on conditionals yielded short-and long-term significant improvement in written production, but none in oral production.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five quasi-experimental studies are sufficiently comparable in design, measures, and contexts to permit a comparative synthesis of their effects.
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe instructional treatment targeting the passé composé and imparfait yielded short-term improvement on two of the three measures, but no long-term significant improvement on any measures.
“To summarise (refer to Table 1), the instructional treatment targeting the passé composé and imparfait yielded short-term improvement on two of the three measures, but no long-term significant improvement on any measures.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five quasi-experimental studies are sufficiently comparable in design, measures, and contexts to permit a comparative synthesis of their effects.
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe one measure not showing significant long-term improvement for all treatment groups nonetheless showed significant improvement for the three treatment groups at the time of immediate post testing.
“the one measure not showing significant long-term improvement for all treatment groups nonetheless showed significant improvement for the three treatment groups at the time of immediate post”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five quasi-experimental studies are sufficiently comparable in design, measures, and contexts to permit a comparative synthesis of their effects.
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
May combine two claims.
Findingnone givenOther predictors are phonological, such as the reliably masculine ending /o/ and the reliably feminine ending /Et/, each with variable orthography.
“Other predictors are phonological, such as the reliably masculine ending /o/ and the reliably feminine ending /Et/, each with variable orthography: /o/ = -eau, -ot, -op; /Et/ = -aite, -ète, -ette.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.
FindingcitationIn Lyster (2004b), at immediate post-test, recast and prompt groups showed significant improvement on binary-choice test, all treatment groups on text completion, prompt group on object identification and picture description; at delayed post-test, all treatment groups on binary-choice test, prompt group on text completion, object identification, and picture description.
“Lyster | 10-11 | grammatical | 9 hrs/ | Binary-choice test | recast and prompt groups | all treatment groups”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Lyster (2004b)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
FindingcitationDay and Shapson reported a tendency during instructional activities for students to contextualise their speech in the present, eliminating the need to use the conditional to express hypothetical meaning and decreasing opportunities to practise conditionals in a meaningful context.
“Day and Shapson reported having observed a tendency during the instructional activities for students to contextualise their speech in the present, thus eliminating the need to use the conditional to express hypothetical meaning and thereby decreasing opportunities to practise using conditionals in a meaningful context.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Day and Shapson (1991) source
May combine two claims.
FindingcitationThe results of the Day and Shapson study were more enduring than those of Harley: students made significant progress on the cloze test and composition, but not on the oral production test.
“The results of the Day and Shapson study were more enduring than those of Harley, as students made significant progress on the cloze test and composition, but not on the oral production test.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Day and Shapson
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Harley
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.
FindingcitationIn Day and Shapson (1991), significant improvement relative to comparison groups was found immediately and delayed on written production and cloze test, but not on oral production.
“Day/Shapson | 12-13 | conditional | 17 hrs/ | Written production | yes | yes”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Day and Shapson (1991) source
May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.
FindingcitationIn Harley (1998), significant improvement relative to comparison groups was found immediately and delayed on binary-choice test, aural discrimination, and picture description, but not on object identification.
“Harley | 7-8 | grammatical | 8hrs/ | Binary-choice test | yes | yes”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Harley (1998)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
FindingreasoningActivities promoting noticing and language awareness appear to have had less emphasis than production activities in the Harley and Day and Shapson studies, and the production activities emphasised communicative meaning-based practice much more than controlled practice.
“Activities promoting noticing and language awareness appear to have had less emphasis than production activities and, furthermore, the production activities emphasised communicative meaning-based practice much more than controlled practice.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingcitationLearners negotiated their plans for a space colony during face-to-face interaction and then designed a model of the colony, thereby situating the task in the here-and-now.
“Learners negotiated their plans for a space colony during face-to-face interaction and then literally designed a model of the colony, thereby situating the task in the here-and-now.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Day and Shapson (1991) source
May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.
FindingcitationIn Harley (1989), significant improvement relative to comparison groups was found immediately on the cloze test and oral production, but not on written production, and no significant delayed improvement on any measure.
“Harley | 11-12 | passé composé | 12 hrs/ | Written production | no | no”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Harley (1989) source
May combine two claims.
FindingcitationAt immediate post-testing, all three treatment groups in Lyster (2004b) showed significant improvement; two months later, the prompt group was the only group to significantly outperform the comparison group on that measure.
“improvement for all treatment groups nonetheless showed significant improvement for the three treatment groups at the time of immediate post testing; two months later, the group receiving feedback in the form of prompts distinguished itself by being the only group to significantly outperform the comparison group on this measure.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Lyster (2004b)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationDay and Shapson (1991) found that on immediate post test measures, the experimental group demonstrated significant gains on a cloze test and a written composition, but not in an oral interview.
“On immediate post test measures, the experimental group demonstrated significant gains on a cloze test and a written composition, but not in an oral interview”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Day and Shapson, 1991 source
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
The quote only partly states this claim.
InterpretationreasoningCognitive theory is a more likely candidate than the interaction hypothesis for explaining L2 learning in classroom settings.
“A more likely candidate for explaining L2 learning in classroom settings is cognitive theory”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationExperimental teachers indicated that the treatment materials focused much more on content than on form, even though many students had not mastered the formal aspects of the verb inflections.
“Furthermore, experimental teachers indicated that the treatment materials focused much more on content than on form, even though many students had not even mastered the formal aspects of the verb inflections.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Harley, 1989 source
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationHarley explained that comparison teachers indicated on questionnaires that they too had devoted a considerable amount of time to teaching the passé composé and the imparfait.
“Harley explained that comparison teachers indicated on questionnaires that they too had devoted a considerable amount of time to the teaching of the passé composé and the imparfait.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Harley, 1989 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe transformation of declarative knowledge into procedural knowledge involves a transition from controlled processing to automatic processing.
“The transformation of declarative knowledge into procedural knowledge involves a transition from controlled processing, which requires a great deal of attention and use of short-term memory, to automatic processing, which operates on automatised procedures stored in long-term memory (Shiffrin and Schneider, 1977).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Shiffrin and Schneider, 1977 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationAccording to Long's interaction hypothesis, conversational moves that assist interlocutors in negotiating for meaning provide learners with a primary source of target language data in ways that benefit language development.
“According to Long's (1996) interaction hypothesis, conversational moves that assist interlocutors in negotiating for meaning provide learners with a primary source of target language data in ways that benefit language development.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Long, 1996 source
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationHarley (1989) found that immediate post test results revealed benefits on the cloze test and the oral interview for the experimental group, but no statistically significant differences between experimental and comparison groups on the composition task.
“Immediate post test results revealed benefits on the cloze test and the oral interview for the experimental group, but no statistically significant differences between the experimental and comparison groups on the composition task.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Harley, 1989 source
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningLanguage features learned in isolated grammar lessons may be remembered in similar contexts but hard to retrieve in communicative interaction.
“In other words, language features learned in isolated grammar lessons may be remembered in similar contexts (e.g., during a grammar test), but hard to retrieve in the context of communicative interaction.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationPica acknowledges that target language accuracy plays only a secondary role in negotiation as defined in L2 acquisition research.
“Pica (1994: 517-518) acknowledges that target language accuracy plays only a secondary role in negotiation, as it has been defined in L2 acquisition research”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Pica, 1994 source
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationDay and Shapson attributed the relatively smaller gains in speaking to an apparent time-lag between internalisation of rule-based declarative knowledge and automatisation of that knowledge in speaking, caused by competition between newly acquired forms and more easily accessible interlanguage forms.
“Day and Shapson attributed the relatively smaller gains in speaking to an apparent time-lag between internalisation of rule-based declarative knowledge and automatisation of that knowledge in speaking, caused by competition between newly acquired forms and more easily accessible interlanguage forms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Day and Shapson, 1991 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationMany L2 acquisition studies have demonstrated that conversational moves used to negotiate meaning provide learners and their interlocutors with a useful set of communication strategies that facilitate comprehension.
“Many L2 acquisition studies have demonstrated that these conversational moves provide learners and their interlocutors with a useful set of communication strategies that facilitate comprehension (e.g., Pica, Young and Doughty, 1987).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Pica, Young and Doughty, 1987 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningIt remains unclear how negotiation for meaning in L2 classroom settings would suffice to drive L2 development forward effectively and efficiently.
“it remains unclear how negotiation for meaning in L2 classroom settings would suffice to drive L2 development forward effectively and efficiently.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn Harley (1989), students in the experimental group continued to improve, but so did students in the comparison group.
“Important to mention here is that students in the experimental group continued nonetheless to improve, but so did students in the comparison group.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Harley, 1989 source
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationImmersion students are able to understand the hypothetical meaning of conditionals, but this ability to comprehend is not matched by the ability to correctly produce conditionals.
“Research has shown that immersion students are able to understand the hypothetical meaning of conditionals, but that this ability to comprehend is not matched by the ability to correctly produce conditionals (e.g., Harley and Swain, 1984).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Harley and Swain, 1984
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationHarley proposed that form-focused instruction is needed to address L2 features that differ in non-obvious ways from the L1, are irregular, infrequent, or lacking perceptual salience, or do not carry a heavy communicative load.
“Harley (1993) proposed that form-focused instruction is needed to address L2 features that: (a) differ in non-obvious or unexpected ways from the L1; (b) are irregular, infrequent, or otherwise lacking in perceptual salience in the L2 input; (c) do not carry a heavy communicative load.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Harley, 1993 source
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningIn the absence of feedback or other appropriate instructional intervention, interlanguage representations can become automatised procedures stored in long-term memory, which explains why immersion students' grammatical development appears to plateau prematurely.
“In the absence of feedback or other types of appropriate instructional intervention, interlanguage representations can also become automatised procedures stored in long-term memory; this explains why immersion students' grammatical development appears to plateau prematurely.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationIn cognitive theory, skill acquisition is described as a gradual change in knowledge from declarative to procedural mental representations.
“The notion of information processing describes skill acquisition as a gradual change in knowledge from declarative to procedural mental representations (Anderson, 1983;1985).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Anderson, 1983
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Anderson, 1985
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe proceduralisation of rule-based declarative representations occurs through practice and feedback, which together move learners towards a restructuring of interlanguage representations.
“The proceduralisation of rule-based declarative representations occurs through practice and feedback (Anderson, Corbett, Koedinger and Pelletier, 1995), which together move learners towards a restructuring of interlanguage representations, enabling them to access a better organized representational system (McLaughlin, 1990;Skehan, 1998).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationBased on analyses of nouns appearing in Le Petit Larousse, Tucker (1967) concluded that gender co-occurs, in a systematic and predictable manner, with noun ending.
“For example, based on analyses of nouns appearing in Le Petit Larousse, Tucker (1967: 13) concluded that 'gender does co-occur, in a systematic and predictable manner, with noun ending'”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Tucker, 1967
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningDuring communicative practice activities that engage learners in meaningful and motivating tasks, lexicalised exemplar-based representations are retrieved more readily, enabling spontaneous production but not engaging language awareness to the same extent, thereby reducing the potential for changes to the interlanguage system.
“Conversely, during communicative practice activities that engage learners in more meaningful and motivating tasks, lexicalised exemplar-based representations will be retrieved more readily, enabling spontaneous production but not engaging learners' language awareness to the same extent, thereby reducing the potential for changes to the interlanguage system.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn Skehan's model, noticing plays a central role in converting input to intake during input processing, and is triggered by input qualities such as frequency and salience and by contrived input features.
“In his model, noticing plays a central role in converting input to intake during input processing (see also Schmidt, 1990), and is triggered by input qualities such as frequency and salience and by input features that have been contrived for instructional purposes (e.g., typographical enhancement).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Skehan's (1998)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Schmidt, 1990 source
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationreasoningGrammatical gender constitutes a relatively complex subsystem, not simply binary, when one considers approximately 100 noun endings and the multiple effects of grammatical gender on morphosyntax within and across sentences.
“I argue instead that grammatical gender also constitutes a relatively complex subsystem, which is not simply binary in nature when one factors into the equation approximately 100 noun endings as well as the multiple effects that grammatical gender has on morphosyntax within and across sentences.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationnone givenA multitude of factors beyond instructional variables can affect learning outcomes in classroom intervention studies.
“I acknowledge, however, that a multitude of factors, well beyond instructional variables, can affect learning outcomes in classroom intervention studies.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationInterlanguage change is more effectively activated through the rule-based system, and conscious awareness predisposes learners towards a rule-based perspective.
“Skehan contends that interlanguage change is more effectively activated through the rule-based system and that conscious awareness predisposes learners towards such a rule-based perspective (see also Schmidt, 1990).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Skehan's (1998)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Schmidt, 1990 source
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationOutput processing engages the learner's memory capacity differentially through retrieval from the dual-mode system, leading either to computed rule-based performance or memory-driven exemplar-based performance.
“Output processing then engages the learner's memory capacity differentially through retrieval from the dual-mode system, leading either to computed rule-based performance or memory-driven exemplar-based performance.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Skehan's (1998)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationDuring online communication, communicative pressure and the need for fast access make the exemplar-based system the system of choice, reducing the likelihood that the rule-based system will be accessed to compute well-formed utterances.
“Skehan argues that, during online communication, communicative pressure and the need for fast access will make the exemplar-based system the system of choice, thus reducing the likelihood that the compact storage and powerful generative rules of the rule-based system will be accessed to compute well-formed utterances.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Skehan's (1998)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningLearners in the Grade 5 study did improve significantly in their performance on a similar task, suggesting that older learners are more predisposed to induce rules and also benefit from access to a much larger set of stored vocabulary items.
“(but learners in the Grade 5 study did improve significantly in their performance on a similar task, suggesting that older learners are more predisposed to induce rules and also benefit from access to a much larger set of stored vocabulary items).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premiseown dataThe recast group significantly outperformed the comparison group on five of the eight measures, while the instruction-only group (receiving no feedback) significantly outperformed the comparison group on four of the eight measures.
“The recast group significantly outperformed the comparison group on five of the eight measures, while the instruction-only group (receiving no feedback) significantly outperformed the comparison group on four of the eight measures.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Lyster, 2004b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationIntake reaches a central processing mechanism that operates a dual-mode system composed of an analytic rule-based system and a memory-driven exemplar-based system.
“Intake reaches a central processing mechanism that operates a dual-mode system composed of two interrelated representational systems: an analytic rule-based system and a memory-driven exemplar-based system (see also Murphy, 2000).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Skehan's (1998)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Murphy, 2000 source
May combine two claims.
Premiseown dataPrompts proved to be the most effective type of feedback, with the prompt group distinguishing itself as the only group to significantly outperform the comparison group on all eight measures.
“Prompts proved to be the most effective type of feedback, with the prompt group distinguishing itself as the only group to significantly outperform the comparison group on all eight measures.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Lyster, 2004b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationCarroll explains that native speakers of French acquire and process determiners and nouns as co-indexed chunks, whereas anglophone learners of French acquire and process determiners and nouns as distinct syntactic words and independent phonological units.
“Carroll (1989) explains that native speakers of French acquire and process determiners and nouns as co-indexed chunks, whereas anglophone learners of French acquire and process determiners and nouns as distinct syntactic words and independent phonological units.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Carroll, 1989 source
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn Lyster (2004b), results revealed that all three treatment groups demonstrated significant long-term improvement on all but one measure at the time of delayed post testing, but showed short-term improvement on this measure at the time of immediate post testing.
“Results revealed that all three treatment groups demonstrated significant long-term improvement on all but one measure at the time of delayed post testing, but showed short-term improvement on this measure at the time of immediate post testing.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Lyster, 2004b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningConsidered chronologically, the five studies reveal a progression in how form-focused instruction has been conceptualised over the past fifteen years, with later studies owing their more robust findings to a more balanced distribution of opportunities for noticing, awareness and practice.
“I propose that, considered chronologically, the five studies reveal a progression in how form-focused instruction has been conceptualised over the past fifteen years, with later studies owing their more robust findings to specific aspects of the instructional treatments: namely, a more balanced distribution of opportunities for noticing, awareness and practice.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe exemplar-based system is especially useful for spontaneous oral production in interactional contexts because its units can be accessed with minimal computational demands.
“While the exemplar-based system is especially useful for spontaneous oral production in interactional contexts, because its units can be accessed with minimal computational demands”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Skehan's (1998)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Interpretationnone givenThe aim of noticing activities is to effect change towards more target-like declarative representations of the L2.
“Their aim is to effect change towards more target-like declarative representations of the L2.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningBecause activities promoting noticing, language awareness and controlled practice were more apparent in the study on second-person pronouns and in both studies on grammatical gender, more opportunities for noticing and language awareness, in addition to controlled automaticity practice and provision of feedback, might have been more effective at helping learners in the Harley (1989) and Day and Sh
“Because activities promoting noticing, language awareness and controlled practice were more apparent in the study on second-person pronouns and in both studies on grammatical gender, I would argue that more opportunities for noticing and language awareness, in addition to controlled automaticity practice and provision of feedback, might have been more effective at helping learners in the Harley (1”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningAs a result of these opportunities, immersion students develop high levels of strategic communicative ability, but their interlanguage appears to reach a developmental plateau in terms of accuracy.
“As a result of these opportunities, immersion students develop high levels of strategic communicative ability, but their interlanguage appears to reach a developmental plateau in terms of accuracy.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationGiven the instructional and interactional design of immersion pedagogy, learners in immersion classrooms benefit from years of exposure to target input and ample opportunities for authentic communication involving negotiation of meaning, which facilitates comprehension and also provides supportive scaffolding when target forms are beyond learners' current production abilities.
“Given the instructional and interactional design of immersion pedagogy (see Genesee, 1991;Met, 1994;Lyster, 2002), learners in immersion classrooms benefit from years of exposure to target input and ample opportunities for authentic communication involving negotiation of meaning, which facilitates comprehension and also provides supportive scaffolding when target forms are beyond learners' current”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Genesee, 1991
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Met, 1994
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Lyster, 2002
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningAlthough the tasks were pedagogically designed to encourage the use of conditionals, they arguably lacked linguistic constraints, in terms of pragmatic appropriateness and discourse coherence, requiring students to use conditionals to complete the tasks.
“Thus, although the tasks were pedagogically designed to encourage the use of conditionals, they arguably lacked linguistic constraints, in terms of pragmatic appropriateness and discourse coherence, requiring students to use conditionals to complete the tasks.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationSkehan's (1998) claim is that instructional activities that serve primarily to induce learners to rely on communication strategies may lead them to bypass target forms and instead to use unanalysed nontarget representations that are more accessible.
“These observations find support in Skehan's (1998) claim that instructional activities that serve primarily to induce learners to rely on communication strategies may lead them to bypass target forms and instead to use unanalysed nontarget representations that are more accessible.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Skehan's (1998)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationSkehan puts into question the role of negotiation of meaning insofar as it aims to achieve mutual comprehensibility, at the expense of moving L2 development forward in terms of formal accuracy and complexity.
“He puts into question the role of negotiation of meaning insofar as it aims to achieve mutual comprehensibility, at the expense of moving L2 development forward in terms of formal accuracy and complexity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Skehan's (1998)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationnone givenThere is little doubt that opportunities for more open-ended communicative practice and negotiation of meaning contribute to other aspects of L2 development.
“I hasten to add that there is little doubt that opportunities for more open-ended communicative practice and negotiation of meaning contribute to other aspects of L2 development.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationHarley (1993) suggested that the experiential approach underlying content-based instruction allows young learners to internalise key aspects of the target system, such as phonologically salient and high-frequency lexical items, as well as syntactic patterns that are congruent with the L1.
“For example, Harley (1993) suggested that the experiential approach underlying content-based instruction allows young learners to internalise key aspects of the target system, such as phonologically salient and high-frequency lexical items, as well as syntactic patterns that are congruent with the L1.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Harley (1993) source
The paper relies on this without support.
The five quasi-experimental studies are sufficiently comparable in design, measures, and contexts to permit a comparative synthesis of their effects.
“This article presents a comparative analysis of five quasi-experimental studies involving close to 1,200 students, ranging in age from 7 to 14, in 49 French immersion classrooms in Canada”
The paper relies on this without support.
The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
“Pretests, immediate post tests, and delayed post tests were administered to the experimental group as well as to a comparison group to compare classes on three measures: a cloze test, a composition task and an oral interview.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
“Furthermore, experimental teachers indicated that the treatment materials focused much more on content than on form, even though many students had not even mastered the formal aspects of the verb inflections.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The findings from the five studies can be generalized to French immersion classrooms in Canada more broadly.
“Findings suggest that effective form-focused instruction in immersion contexts, at least with respect to interlanguage features that have reached a developmental plateau, includes a balanced distribution of opportunities for noticing, language awareness and controlled practice with feedback.”
Cites
Shiffrin, R. M., & Schneider, W. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.2.127 · Cited by 7,335 · see citing works
Anderson, J. R. (2013) · doi:10.4324/9781315799438 · Cited by 6,761 · see citing works
The Role of Consciousness in Second Language Learning1
SCHMIDT, R. W. (1990) · Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1093/applin/11.2.129 · Cited by 4,910 · cited 2× · see citing works
“In his model, noticing plays a central role in converting input to intake during input processing (see also Schmidt, 1990), and is triggered by input qualities such as frequency and salience and by input features that have been contrived for instructional purposes (e.g., typographical enhancement).”
BackgroundCognitive Psychology and Its Implications
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INTERACTIONAL FEEDBACK AND INSTRUCTIONAL COUNTERBALANCE
Lyster, R., & Mori, H. (2006) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263106060128 · Cited by 506 · see citing works
“…interventions+ The counterbalance hypothesis finds support in this regard from a recent review of form-focused instructional treatments in FI classrooms ~Lyster, 2004b!, which revealed that the most effective form-focused instructional interventions ~with the most robust results! were…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationYang, Y., & Lyster, R. (2010) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263109990519 · Cited by 344 · see citing works
Self-citationImplicit and explicit instruction in L2 learning: Norris & Ortega (2000) revisited and updated
Goo, J., Granena, G., Yilmaz, Y., & Novella, M. (2015) · Studies in Bilingualism · doi:10.1075/sibil.48.18goo · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Ranta, L., & Lyster, R. (2007) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511667275.009 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Self-citationTHE EFFECTS OF CORRECTIVE FEEDBACK ON INSTRUCTED L2 SPEECH PERCEPTION
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Sydorenko, T. (2015) · Intercultural Pragmatics · doi:10.1515/ip-2015-0017 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Is Grammar Instruction Beneficial for Heritage Language Learners? Dative Case Marking in Spanish
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Izquierdo, J., & Collins, L. J. (2008) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.2008.00751.x · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Pitarch, R. C. (2018) · Journal of Language Teaching and Research · doi:10.17507/jltr.0906.04 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
“At this output stage, students may notice their errors and mistakes and learn from them (Lyster, 2004).”
BackgroundDeaf Children as ‘English Learners’: The Psycholinguistic Turn in Deaf Education
Howerton-Fox, A., & Falk, J. L. (2019) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci9020133 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“Research has clearly demonstrated that hearing bilingual children benefit from explicit grammar instruction [160,161], and recent research suggests that deaf bilingual children do, too.”
BackgroundStakeholder Perspectives: CLIL Programme Management in Estonia
Mehisto, P., & Asser, H. (2007) · International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism · doi:10.2167/beb466.0 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Véronique, G. D. (2005) · Acquisition et interaction en langue étrangère · doi:10.4000/aile.1707 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
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The spoken Irish of sixth-class pupils in Irish immersion schools
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“Despite the fact that a lot of studies have been conducted to examine this issue (See e.g., Carroll & Swain, 1993; Lyster, 2004; Mackey, 2000), every teacher is still following his or her own way of error feedback.”
BackgroundLearning grammatical gender: The use of rules by novice learners
Presson, N., MacWhinney, B., & Tokowicz, N. (2012) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716412000550 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“…that the advantage of rule instruction was actually due to instruction in the rule and not the result of simply directing the learners’ attention to the relevant forms, which in itself has been shown to be a powerful tool in improving language learning (Lightbown & Spada, 1990; Lyster, 2004a).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialIf you use ASL, should you study ESL? Limitations of a modality-b(i)ased policy
Koulidobrova, E., Kuntze, M., & Dostal, H. M. (2018) · Language · doi:10.1353/lan.2018.0029 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“In other words, D/HH children benefit from explicit language instruction, much like hearing ELs do (Ellis 2001, 2002, Lyster 2004a,b).”
Making research on instructed SLA relevant for teachers through professional development
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“In oral tasks, however, all three treatment groups performed similarly, owing arguably to a large task effect resulting from the individualized administration of oral tasks to a subsample of participants (for details, see Lyster, 2004a).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationAssessing Language Revitalization: Methods and Priorities
O'Grady, W. D. (2017) · Annual Review of Linguistics · doi:10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011817-045423 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“…types (including those for familiar European languages) has been tempered by reports of shortfalls in various areas of linguistic proficiency (see, e.g., Genesee 2004 and Lyster 2004, 2007 for French; Peter et al. 2011 for Cherokee; Housman et al. 2011 for Hawaiian; and Ó Duibhir 2009 for Irish).”
BackgroundPeter, L., Hirata‐Edds, T., & Montgomery‐Anderson, B. (2008) · International Journal of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1111/j.1473-4192.2008.00199.x · Cited by 22 · see citing works
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Wewer, T. M. (2014) · UTUPub (University of Turku) · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Rahimi, M., & Zhang, L. J. (2013) · Language Learning Journal · doi:10.1080/09571736.2013.858368 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“…fromprevious focusedCF studies which indicated that prompts are generally more facilitative to learning than recasts in classroom contexts (e.g. Ammar and Spada 2006; Bitchener and Ferris, 2012; Ellis, Loewen and Erlam 2006; Lyster 2004a; Lyster and Saito 2010; Sheen 2010; Yang and Lyster 2010).”
BackgroundOn Written Corrective Feedback in L2 Writing.
Shao, X. (2015) · English Language Teaching · doi:10.5539/elt.v8n3p155 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“Furthermore, Lyster (2004b) claims that there is little direct evidence that actually associates conversational moves used in negotiation of meaning with second language development.”
BackgroundInfluentialValeo, A. (2010) · TSpace (University of Toronto) · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Izquierdo, J. (2009) · Canadian Modern Language Review/ La Revue canadienne des langues vivantes · doi:10.3138/cmlr.65.4.587 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“…aux caractéristiques des formes langagières de l’input (Izquierdo, 2008 ; Simard, 2008), au type d’enseignement dans le programme d’apprentissage (Lyster, 2004), au stade de développement des apprenants (Izquierdo et Collins, 2008) et à la langue maternelle (DeKeyser, 2005) contribuent,…”
BackgroundMultimedia Instruction & Language Learning Attitudes: A Study with University Students
Izquierdo, J., Simard, D., & Pulido, M. G. G. (2015) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Yeh, E. (2014) · The Journal of Effective Teaching · Cited by 16 · see citing works
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Gonzalves, L. (2020) · Language Awareness · doi:10.1080/09658416.2020.1776721 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Furthermore, as focusing on communication alone is not sufficient in developing a high L2 proficiency, integrating a focus on form in the lesson may help in achieving this goal (Lightbown & Spada, 1990; Lyster, 2004; Spada & Lightbown, 2008; Swain, 1998).”
BackgroundYeh, E., & Kessler, G. (2014) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-6347-3.ch001 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
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Evans, M. (2009) · British Educational Research Journal · doi:10.1080/01411920903017986 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Second language grammar learning in refugee children
Olioumtsevits, K., Papadopoulou, D., & Marinis, T. (2022) · Pedagogical Linguistics · doi:10.1075/pl.21012.oli · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Pena, C. A., & Pladevall‐Ballester, E. (2020) · Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education · doi:10.1075/jicb.17028.alf · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Review of research on language teaching, learning and policy published in 2007
Johnstone, R. (2009) · Language Teaching · doi:10.1017/s0261444809005758 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Research on Corrective Feedback in ESL/EFL Classrooms
Su, T., & Tian, J.-P. (2016) · Theory and Practice in Language Studies · doi:10.17507/tpls.0602.29 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Besides, Lyster (2004b) holds that elicitation is the best way of CF, because it can help learners to improve their control ability for language forms which they have mastered.”
BackgroundTipurita, M.-E., & Jean, G. (2014) · Canadian Modern Language Review/ La Revue canadienne des langues vivantes · doi:10.3138/cmlr.1756 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Quant aux deux tests de production orale, il s’agissait, comme dans l’étude de Harley décrite ci-dessus, de choisir le déterminant approprié en donnant le singulier de noms inconnus fournis au pluriel dans un cas et de décrire une image dans l’autre cas.”
BackgroundInfluentialPech, D. M., & Izquierdo, J. (2011) · Redalyc (Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México) · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Focus on Form Instruction in EFL: Iimplications for Theory and Practice
Farrokhi, F., & Talabari, F. A. (2011) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 7 · see citing works
The Role of Explicit Instruction inthe L2 Acquisition of the a-personal
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Lin, H. (2010) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network) · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Villegas, V. D. L. C., & Izquierdo, J. (2014) · Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja) · Cited by 5 · see citing works
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Mayo, M. D. P. G. (2011) · Elia · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Guénette, D. (2010) · doi:10.82308/8293 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Second and Foreign Language Education in Canada
Early, M. (2008) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-30424-3_99 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Kachinske, I., & DEKEYSER, R. M. (2019) · Journal of Second Language Studies · doi:10.1075/jsls.19003.kac · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Arslan, R. Ş., & DOĞAN, S. I. (2020) · Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies · doi:10.17263/jlls.712869 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“…out in different parts of the world indicated that the learners who received focus on form were superior to the learners who did not receive focus on form (Lyster, 2004; Othman & Ismail, 2008; Gezmiş, 2011; ElgünGündüz, Akcan, & Bayyurt, 2012; Bakshiri & Mohammadi, 2014; Nourdad & Aghayı, 2014).”
BackgroundThe Effect of Oral Corrective Feedback on Article Errors in L3 English: Prompts vs. Recasts
Doski, P. M., & Filiz, C. E. L. E. (2018) · English Language Teaching · doi:10.5539/elt.v11n8p143 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“The teacher gave explanations about the articles and the rules for using definite and indefinite articles, this session was arranged to review the student prior knowledge of the the target structure, since prompts cannot be applied to elicit information that learners do not know already (Lyster, 2004), and to free the…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialAcquisition de la liaison et de l'enchaînement en français L2 : le rôle de la fréquence
de Moras, & Odette, N. (2011) · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Véronique, G. (2008) · Congrès Mondial de Linguistique Française 2008 · doi:10.1051/cmlf08318 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Lyster (2004) prône un enseignement qui favorise la prise de conscience (noticing) et la conceptualisation (language awareness).”
BackgroundNassaji, H., & Kartchava, E. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108333603.026 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Vanderveen, T. N. (2015) · YorkSpace (York University) · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Skill Acquisition Theory and the Role of Rule and Example Learning
Kachinske, I. (2021) · Journal of Contemporary Philology Ss Cyril and Methodius University B Koneski Faculty of Philology · doi:10.37834/jcp2142025k · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“…many researchers view L2 language development, especially in classroom settings, as being similar to any other form of cognitive skill acquisition (de Jong and Perfetti 2011; DeKeyser 1997, 1998, 2001, 2007a ,b; Lyster 1994, 2004, 2007; McLaughlin 1990; Ranta and Lyster 2007; Lyster and Sato 2013).”
Effects of integrated form-focused instruction on vocabulary learning for Chinese English learners
Wei, R., & Yu, L. (2023) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2023.2266478 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Lyster (2004) characterized FFI by emphasizing its three key components: noticing, awareness-raising, and production practice.”
Concept-based instruction for applied L2 acquisition
Doueihi, J. Z., & François, T. (2021) · Pedagogical Linguistics · doi:10.1075/pl.21006.zak · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“For example, Lyster (2004) noticed that instruction overemphasizing production activities lead to difficulties for students in distinguishing the functionality of tenses, especially in the long-term.”
BackgroundProactive/Reactive Focus on Form and Immediate/Delayed Writing Production
Bakshiri, N., & Mohammadi, M. (2014) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.03.424 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Heritage Language Early Years’ Immersion: Irish-Medium Preschools in Ireland
Hickey, T. M. (2022) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-91662-6_15 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Dubetz, N. E., & Collett, J. (2020) · Fordham Research Commons (Fordham University) · doi:10.5422/jmer.2020.v10.11-33 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Frontloading is not to be confused with teaching lessons on isolated grammar points or language structures, an approach that has been demonstrated to be ineffective for advancing MLs’ language proficiency (Lyster, 2004).”
BackgroundLyster, R., & Genesee, F. H. (2012) · The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0525 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationBlondeau, H. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139013734.025 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Duibhir, P. Ó., Garland, J., & Feirste, B. (2010) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Heritage Language Early Years’ Immersion: Irish-Medium Preschools in Ireland
Hickey, T. M. (2021) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-47073-9_15-1 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Kvist, C. (2014) · Lund University Publications Student Papers (Lund University) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Moriyoshi, N. (2011) · doi:10.82308/34187 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Rethinking Pedagogical Options for Teaching Explicit Grammar in French Immersion
Mueller, K. (2015) · Libraries and Cultural Resources (University of Calgary) · doi:10.5072/prism/27659 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Effect of Immediate and Delayed Error Correction on Accuracy of EFL Learners’ Oral Production
Safari, F. (2016) · Journal of Studies in Education · doi:10.5296/jse.v6i3.8915 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Multimedia and Second Language Vocabulary: A Study with University-level Learners of English
Villegas, V. D. L. C., & Izquierdo, J. (2014) · Sinéctica Revista Electrónica de Educación · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Aghajani, M., & Abbaszadeh, E. (2018) · Journal of applied linguistics and language research · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Hunter, J. D. (2022) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2022.102933 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Cohen, C., & Quirk, E. (2025) · Languages · doi:10.3390/languages10010006 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…gender, while others, such as - tion or - ti é , typically mark feminine gender) (Lyster, 2006; Tucker et al., 1977), the grammatical gender system in French is considered quite opaque (Corbett, 1991) and even “quite arbitrary and unsystematic in the case of inanimate nouns” (Lyster, 2004, p. 330).”
Kachinske, I., & DEKEYSER, R. M. (2021) · Benjamins current topics · doi:10.1075/bct.116.03kac · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Possemato, F. (2017) · The Sydney eScholarship Repository (The University of Sydney) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
de Jesús, M., & Sandoval, I. (2008) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Peng, F. (2015) · Scholarworks (University of Massachusetts Amherst) · doi:10.7275/6950542
“In addition, it has been proven that Form-focused instruction is more effective in many face-to-face classroom settings (R. Ellis, 2001, 2002; Lyster, 2004a, 2004b).”
BackgroundAmbrosio, L., & Bourdages, J. S. (2009) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals)
Izquierdo, J., Guadalupe, M., & Pulido, G. (2015) · Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja)
EXPOSURE TO CORRECTIVE FEEDBACK STRATEGIES AND ATTITUDINAL SHIFT
Sanavi, R. V., & Nemati, M. (2014)
English Language Teaching Unit
Rasool, R. M. K. (2008)
DEKEYSER, R. M. (2007) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511667275.008
JeongDongBin, & Ghymn, J. (2008) · English Language Teaching · doi:10.17936/pkelt.2008.20.3.011
Mitchell, S. (2016) · uO Research (University of Ottawa) · doi:10.20381/ruor-5643
The Effect of Explicit Grammar Instruction on Language Learning
Kumara, P. B. S. L. P. (2016)
김민성 (2015) · Seoul National University Open Repository (Seoul National University)
Maguire, C. (2018) · University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota)
Use of Languages Across the Curriculum
Turner, M. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-21591-0_3
Blackstone, P. (2019) · UVic’s Research and Learning Repository (University of Victoria)
THE EFFECTS OF EXPLICIT FORM-FOCUSED INSTRUCTION ON L2 ORAL PROFICIENCY DEVELOPMENT
Lee, S.-C. N. (2019) · TUScholarShare (Temple University)
An Overview and Evaluation of Written Corrective Feedback in L2 Writing
Ajmal, M. (2021) · Pakistan Social Sciences Review · doi:10.35484/pssr.2021(5-i)33
“The accuracy of juxtaposing the outcomes of response according to the stages of clarity as examined by Lyster (2002), on basis of his finding that it is renovation which is conclusion of significant causes instead of arising out of clarity which helps in advancement of foreign language. Redesign was also differentiate…”
MethodInfluentialVexique: Vocabulary enhancement software for French immersion students
Woloshen, S. (2021) · Summit (Simon Fraser University)
Redmond, L., Bourdages, R., & Foucambert, D. (2021) · La Revue de l'AQEFLS/Revue de l'AQEFLS · doi:10.7202/1082347ar
Alwi, N. A. N. M. (2010) · doi:10.26686/wgtn.16971355.v1 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
- Authors
- LYSTER, R.
- Affiliations
- McGill University (CA)
- Corresponding author
- LYSTER, ROY
- Venue
- Journal of French Language Studies
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2004-11
- Volume
- 14
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 321-341
- ISSN
- 0959-2695 (ISSN-L)
- 1474-0079
- OpenAlex
- W2122572374
- Cited by
- 111
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 1 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 1 · 2012: 4
- FWCI
- 19.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Locations
- Journal of French Language Studies (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship@McGill (McGill) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
- Social Sciences › Linguistics and Language › French Language Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Second Language Acquisition and Learning
- Keywords
- form-focused instruction, French immersion, second language grammar, noticing, language awareness, feedback, controlled practice, conditional mood, second-person pronouns, grammatical gender, interlanguage, communication strategies
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