The DOI matches its Crossref record; 48 of the 48 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 7 of the 94 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: implications for theory and practice
Open accessAbstract
This article presents a comparative analysis of five quasi-experimental studies involving close to 1,200 students, ranging in age from 7 to 14, in 49 French immersion classrooms in Canada – a content-based instructional context where learners develop high levels of communicative ability yet demonstrate a levelling-off effect in their grammatical development. The studies investigated the effects of form-focused instruction on four areas known to be difficult for anglophone learners of French: perfect vs. imperfect past tense, conditional mood, second-person pronouns and grammatical gender. Findings suggest that effective form-focused instruction in immersion contexts, at least with respect to interlanguage features that have reached a developmental plateau, includes a balanced distribution of opportunities for noticing, language awareness and controlled practice with feedback. Less effective instructional options overemphasise negotiation for meaning in oral tasks where message comprehensibility and communication strategies circumvent the need for learners to move beyond the use of interlanguage forms.
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Claims the paper makes
35 Own interpretation · 30 No full text of the sources · 27 Sources not found · 7 No basis given · 6 Not checked yet · 5 Own result · 3 Partly supported · 2 Supported · 2 Couldn’t confirm · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“yet reviews of empirical studies show that explicit attention to form in communicative contexts is more effective (Spada, 1997;Norris and Ortega, 2000).”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Spada, 1997 source
- Could not verifycites Norris and Ortega, 2000 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The supplied passages and further searches for explicit versus implicit instruction, incidental learning, and Norris and Ortega do not address the claimed comparison. The indexed text is headed “Self-Monitoring and Self-Reflection in an English Blended Learning Environment,” rather than the cited paper, so this copy cannot verify what Norris and Ortega (2000) concluded. (LLM, conf=0.76)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The development of an accurate system of second-person reference in French is not a straightforward process for young anglophone learners of French in early immersion classrooms (Swain and Lapkin, 1990;Lyster and Rebuffot, 2002).”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3.3 Second-Person Pronouns
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Swain and Lapkin, 1990
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Supportedcites Lyster and Rebuffot, 2002 source
The paper’s passage labeled §4.1 says that French pronouns of address are difficult for students in Canadian French immersion classrooms. It explains that varied classroom uses of *tu* add to the difficulty for young learners whose main language is English; §5 also reports immersion students’ overuse of *tu* where *vous* is required. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“Recent classroom observation studies (e.g., Lyster and Ranta, 1997;Lyster, 1998;2002) have shown that meaningful interaction related to content is typical of immersion classroom discourse.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 4 d i sc u s s i on
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lyster and Ranta, 1997 source
- Could not verifycites Lyster, 1998 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The available copy yields only a title and download notices, with no substantive passage to assess the claim. Searches for meaningful content-related interaction and immersion classroom discourse found no matching text, so the claim cannot be verified from this copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Not matchedcites [2002]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“By far the most frequent of the two forms, as well as the one with simpler verb forms, tu is the secondperson pronoun used almost exclusively by many immersion students”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3.3 Second-Person Pronouns
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Dewaele, 2002 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Section 2.2 quotes an observation that some French second-language learners use tu almost exclusively. It does not establish that this is true of many immersion students: the immersion study discussed in the same section concerns improvement in the use of vous. The cited passages also do not establish that tu is by far the more frequent form or has simpler verb forms. (LLM, conf=0.84)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This was not the case in studies of grammatical gender and second-person pronouns.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 4 d i sc u s s i on
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Instruction on grammatical gender with older learners in Grade 5 yielded significant long-term improvement for all groups exposed to form-focused instruction on three of the four measures”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3.5 Summary
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The five quasi-experimental studies are sufficiently comparable in design, measures, and contexts to permit a comparative synthesis of their effects.
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“in both the Harley (1989) study and the Day and Shapson (1991) study, comparison teachers reported that they too were teaching the target forms.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 4 d i sc u s s i on
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Instruction on sociostylistic variation with emphasis on second-person pronouns yielded short-and long-term improvement on all measures.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3.5 Summary
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The five quasi-experimental studies are sufficiently comparable in design, measures, and contexts to permit a comparative synthesis of their effects.
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Some predictors are primarily orthographic, showing up in the spelling of suffixes.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3.4 Grammatical Gender
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In a recent analysis of over 10,000 nouns in Le Robert Junior Illustré, organized according to some 100 endings that are either reliably feminine, reliably masculine, or ambiguous, I found that 80 per cent of feminine nouns and 80 per cent of masculine nouns have endings that reliably predict their grammatical gender (Lyster, 2004a).”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3.4 Grammatical Gender
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lyster, 2004a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
- Probably not a substantial claim. 26
- It may state two separate claims as one. 44
- The quote only partly states this claim. 6
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In this regard, Swain (1988) and Harley (1993) explained that the experiential approach driving content-based language instruction effectively promotes incidental language learning, but does not necessarily enable students to acquire specific form-function relationships.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3 f orm -f oc u se d i n st ruc t i on
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Swain, 1988 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In “Examples of Content Teaching” (page unavailable), Swain says typical content teaching is limited in the form–function relationships it brings into use and needs complementary activities. The paper does not establish that an experiential approach effectively promotes incidental language learning; in its opening discussion (page unavailable), it says the assumption that content learning enhances language learning may need qualification. (LLM, conf=0.86)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Harley, 1993 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Results showed significant gains, both in the short-and long-term, in students' ability to use vous in formal contexts in both written and oral production tasks, and in their awareness of sociolinguistic appropriateness as demonstrated by their performance on multiple-choice tests.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3.3 Second-Person Pronouns
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Lyster, 1994 source
Split into 2 atoms — 2 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Lyster | 13-14 | second-person | 12 hrs/ | Written production | yes | yes”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 5 conc lu s i on
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Lyster (1994) source
The discussion following Table 5 reports that experimental classes improved relative to comparison classes on written production, formal oral production, and multiple choice. It says the gains appeared on immediate post-tests and were maintained at delayed post-testing; the delay was approximately four weeks. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
- Supported
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“In both studies, learners exposed to the experimental treatment did in fact continue to progress throughout the study, but the significant effects were neutralised by improvement made by students in comparison classes.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 4 d i sc u s s i on
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The instructional treatment targeting grammatical gender in Grade 2 resulted in significant short-and long-term improvement for learners on three of the four measures; an oral task that required participants to assign grammatical gender to unfamiliar nouns yielded no significant results”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3.5 Summary
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The five quasi-experimental studies are sufficiently comparable in design, measures, and contexts to permit a comparative synthesis of their effects.
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The five studies share the context of French immersion as well as many sine qua non features of quasi-experimental designs.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 4 d i sc u s s i on
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“it was found in the end that, not only did students have difficulty distinguishing the functional distinctions of these two tenses, they had not mastered their formal characteristics either.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 4 d i sc u s s i on
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Harley (1989) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, the suffix -elle is reliably feminine whereas the homophonous ending -el reliably predicts masculine gender.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3.4 Grammatical Gender
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Form-focused instruction on conditionals yielded short-and long-term significant improvement in written production, but none in oral production.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3.5 Summary
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The five quasi-experimental studies are sufficiently comparable in design, measures, and contexts to permit a comparative synthesis of their effects.
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To summarise (refer to Table 1), the instructional treatment targeting the passé composé and imparfait yielded short-term improvement on two of the three measures, but no long-term significant improvement on any measures.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3.5 Summary
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The five quasi-experimental studies are sufficiently comparable in design, measures, and contexts to permit a comparative synthesis of their effects.
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the one measure not showing significant long-term improvement for all treatment groups nonetheless showed significant improvement for the three treatment groups at the time of immediate post”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3.5 Summary
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The five quasi-experimental studies are sufficiently comparable in design, measures, and contexts to permit a comparative synthesis of their effects.
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Other predictors are phonological, such as the reliably masculine ending /o/ and the reliably feminine ending /Et/, each with variable orthography: /o/ = -eau, -ot, -op; /Et/ = -aite, -ète, -ette.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3.4 Grammatical Gender
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Lyster | 10-11 | grammatical | 9 hrs/ | Binary-choice test | recast and prompt groups | all treatment groups”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 5 conc lu s i on
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lyster (2004b)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Day and Shapson reported having observed a tendency during the instructional activities for students to contextualise their speech in the present, thus eliminating the need to use the conditional to express hypothetical meaning and thereby decreasing opportunities to practise using conditionals in a meaningful context.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 4 d i sc u s s i on
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Day and Shapson (1991) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“The results of the Day and Shapson study were more enduring than those of Harley, as students made significant progress on the cloze test and composition, but not on the oral production test.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 4 d i sc u s s i on
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Day and Shapson
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Harley
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Day/Shapson | 12-13 | conditional | 17 hrs/ | Written production | yes | yes”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 5 conc lu s i on
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Day and Shapson (1991) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“Harley | 7-8 | grammatical | 8hrs/ | Binary-choice test | yes | yes”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 5 conc lu s i on
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Harley (1998)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Activities promoting noticing and language awareness appear to have had less emphasis than production activities and, furthermore, the production activities emphasised communicative meaning-based practice much more than controlled practice.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 4 d i sc u s s i on
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Learners negotiated their plans for a space colony during face-to-face interaction and then literally designed a model of the colony, thereby situating the task in the here-and-now.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 4 d i sc u s s i on
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Day and Shapson (1991) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Harley | 11-12 | passé composé | 12 hrs/ | Written production | no | no”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 5 conc lu s i on
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Harley (1989) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“improvement for all treatment groups nonetheless showed significant improvement for the three treatment groups at the time of immediate post testing; two months later, the group receiving feedback in the form of prompts distinguished itself by being the only group to significantly outperform the comparison group on this measure.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3.5 Summary
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lyster (2004b)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“On immediate post test measures, the experimental group demonstrated significant gains on a cloze test and a written composition, but not in an oral interview”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3.2 Conditional Mood
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Day and Shapson, 1991 source
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A more likely candidate for explaining L2 learning in classroom settings is cognitive theory”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 2.2 Cognitive theory
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“Furthermore, experimental teachers indicated that the treatment materials focused much more on content than on form, even though many students had not even mastered the formal aspects of the verb inflections.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3.1 Perfect and imperfect past tenses
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Harley, 1989 source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Harley explained that comparison teachers indicated on questionnaires that they too had devoted a considerable amount of time to the teaching of the passé composé and the imparfait.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3.1 Perfect and imperfect past tenses
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Harley, 1989 source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“The transformation of declarative knowledge into procedural knowledge involves a transition from controlled processing, which requires a great deal of attention and use of short-term memory, to automatic processing, which operates on automatised procedures stored in long-term memory (Shiffrin and Schneider, 1977).”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 2.2 Cognitive theory
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Shiffrin and Schneider, 1977 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“According to Long's (1996) interaction hypothesis, conversational moves that assist interlocutors in negotiating for meaning provide learners with a primary source of target language data in ways that benefit language development.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 2.1 Interaction hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Long, 1996 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Immediate post test results revealed benefits on the cloze test and the oral interview for the experimental group, but no statistically significant differences between the experimental and comparison groups on the composition task.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3.1 Perfect and imperfect past tenses
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Harley, 1989 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In other words, language features learned in isolated grammar lessons may be remembered in similar contexts (e.g., during a grammar test), but hard to retrieve in the context of communicative interaction.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3 f orm -f oc u se d i n st ruc t i on
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Pica (1994: 517-518) acknowledges that target language accuracy plays only a secondary role in negotiation, as it has been defined in L2 acquisition research”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 2.1 Interaction hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Pica, 1994 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Day and Shapson attributed the relatively smaller gains in speaking to an apparent time-lag between internalisation of rule-based declarative knowledge and automatisation of that knowledge in speaking, caused by competition between newly acquired forms and more easily accessible interlanguage forms.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3.2 Conditional Mood
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Day and Shapson, 1991 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Many L2 acquisition studies have demonstrated that these conversational moves provide learners and their interlocutors with a useful set of communication strategies that facilitate comprehension (e.g., Pica, Young and Doughty, 1987).”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 2.1 Interaction hypothesis
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Pica, Young and Doughty, 1987 source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it remains unclear how negotiation for meaning in L2 classroom settings would suffice to drive L2 development forward effectively and efficiently.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 2.1 Interaction hypothesis
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Important to mention here is that students in the experimental group continued nonetheless to improve, but so did students in the comparison group.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3.1 Perfect and imperfect past tenses
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Harley, 1989 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
In the paper
“Research has shown that immersion students are able to understand the hypothetical meaning of conditionals, but that this ability to comprehend is not matched by the ability to correctly produce conditionals (e.g., Harley and Swain, 1984).”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3.2 Conditional Mood
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Harley and Swain, 1984
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Harley (1993) proposed that form-focused instruction is needed to address L2 features that: (a) differ in non-obvious or unexpected ways from the L1; (b) are irregular, infrequent, or otherwise lacking in perceptual salience in the L2 input; (c) do not carry a heavy communicative load.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3 f orm -f oc u se d i n st ruc t i on
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Harley, 1993 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the absence of feedback or other types of appropriate instructional intervention, interlanguage representations can also become automatised procedures stored in long-term memory; this explains why immersion students' grammatical development appears to plateau prematurely.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 2.2 Cognitive theory
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“The notion of information processing describes skill acquisition as a gradual change in knowledge from declarative to procedural mental representations (Anderson, 1983;1985).”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 2.2 Cognitive theory
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Anderson, 1983
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Anderson, 1985
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The proceduralisation of rule-based declarative representations occurs through practice and feedback (Anderson, Corbett, Koedinger and Pelletier, 1995), which together move learners towards a restructuring of interlanguage representations, enabling them to access a better organized representational system (McLaughlin, 1990;Skehan, 1998).”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 2.2 Cognitive theory
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For example, based on analyses of nouns appearing in Le Petit Larousse, Tucker (1967: 13) concluded that 'gender does co-occur, in a systematic and predictable manner, with noun ending'”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3.4 Grammatical Gender
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Tucker, 1967
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conversely, during communicative practice activities that engage learners in more meaningful and motivating tasks, lexicalised exemplar-based representations will be retrieved more readily, enabling spontaneous production but not engaging learners' language awareness to the same extent, thereby reducing the potential for changes to the interlanguage system.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 4 d i sc u s s i on
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In his model, noticing plays a central role in converting input to intake during input processing (see also Schmidt, 1990), and is triggered by input qualities such as frequency and salience and by input features that have been contrived for instructional purposes (e.g., typographical enhancement).”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 4 d i sc u s s i on
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Skehan's (1998)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Schmidt, 1990 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“I argue instead that grammatical gender also constitutes a relatively complex subsystem, which is not simply binary in nature when one factors into the equation approximately 100 noun endings as well as the multiple effects that grammatical gender has on morphosyntax within and across sentences.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 4 d i sc u s s i on
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“I acknowledge, however, that a multitude of factors, well beyond instructional variables, can affect learning outcomes in classroom intervention studies.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 4 d i sc u s s i on
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Skehan contends that interlanguage change is more effectively activated through the rule-based system and that conscious awareness predisposes learners towards such a rule-based perspective (see also Schmidt, 1990).”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 4 d i sc u s s i on
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Skehan's (1998)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Schmidt, 1990 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Output processing then engages the learner's memory capacity differentially through retrieval from the dual-mode system, leading either to computed rule-based performance or memory-driven exemplar-based performance.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 4 d i sc u s s i on
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Skehan's (1998)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Skehan argues that, during online communication, communicative pressure and the need for fast access will make the exemplar-based system the system of choice, thus reducing the likelihood that the compact storage and powerful generative rules of the rule-based system will be accessed to compute well-formed utterances.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 4 d i sc u s s i on
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Skehan's (1998)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“(but learners in the Grade 5 study did improve significantly in their performance on a similar task, suggesting that older learners are more predisposed to induce rules and also benefit from access to a much larger set of stored vocabulary items).”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3.5 Summary
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The recast group significantly outperformed the comparison group on five of the eight measures, while the instruction-only group (receiving no feedback) significantly outperformed the comparison group on four of the eight measures.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3.4 Grammatical Gender
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lyster, 2004b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Intake reaches a central processing mechanism that operates a dual-mode system composed of two interrelated representational systems: an analytic rule-based system and a memory-driven exemplar-based system (see also Murphy, 2000).”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 4 d i sc u s s i on
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Skehan's (1998)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Murphy, 2000 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Prompts proved to be the most effective type of feedback, with the prompt group distinguishing itself as the only group to significantly outperform the comparison group on all eight measures.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3.4 Grammatical Gender
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lyster, 2004b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Carroll (1989) explains that native speakers of French acquire and process determiners and nouns as co-indexed chunks, whereas anglophone learners of French acquire and process determiners and nouns as distinct syntactic words and independent phonological units.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3.4 Grammatical Gender
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Carroll, 1989 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Results revealed that all three treatment groups demonstrated significant long-term improvement on all but one measure at the time of delayed post testing, but showed short-term improvement on this measure at the time of immediate post testing.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 3.4 Grammatical Gender
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lyster, 2004b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
- Rests on an assumption: The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“I propose that, considered chronologically, the five studies reveal a progression in how form-focused instruction has been conceptualised over the past fifteen years, with later studies owing their more robust findings to specific aspects of the instructional treatments: namely, a more balanced distribution of opportunities for noticing, awareness and practice.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 4 d i sc u s s i on
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“While the exemplar-based system is especially useful for spontaneous oral production in interactional contexts, because its units can be accessed with minimal computational demands”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 4 d i sc u s s i on
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Skehan's (1998)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Their aim is to effect change towards more target-like declarative representations of the L2.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 5 conc lu s i on
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Because activities promoting noticing, language awareness and controlled practice were more apparent in the study on second-person pronouns and in both studies on grammatical gender, I would argue that more opportunities for noticing and language awareness, in addition to controlled automaticity practice and provision of feedback, might have been more effective at helping learners in the Harley (1”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 4 d i sc u s s i on
What the sources say
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As a result of these opportunities, immersion students develop high levels of strategic communicative ability, but their interlanguage appears to reach a developmental plateau in terms of accuracy.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 5 conc lu s i on
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Given the instructional and interactional design of immersion pedagogy (see Genesee, 1991;Met, 1994;Lyster, 2002), learners in immersion classrooms benefit from years of exposure to target input and ample opportunities for authentic communication involving negotiation of meaning, which facilitates comprehension and also provides supportive scaffolding when target forms are beyond learners' current”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 5 conc lu s i on
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Genesee, 1991
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Met, 1994
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Lyster, 2002
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, although the tasks were pedagogically designed to encourage the use of conditionals, they arguably lacked linguistic constraints, in terms of pragmatic appropriateness and discourse coherence, requiring students to use conditionals to complete the tasks.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 4 d i sc u s s i on
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“These observations find support in Skehan's (1998) claim that instructional activities that serve primarily to induce learners to rely on communication strategies may lead them to bypass target forms and instead to use unanalysed nontarget representations that are more accessible.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 5 conc lu s i on
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Skehan's (1998)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“He puts into question the role of negotiation of meaning insofar as it aims to achieve mutual comprehensibility, at the expense of moving L2 development forward in terms of formal accuracy and complexity.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 5 conc lu s i on
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Skehan's (1998)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“I hasten to add that there is little doubt that opportunities for more open-ended communicative practice and negotiation of meaning contribute to other aspects of L2 development.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 5 conc lu s i on
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“For example, Harley (1993) suggested that the experiential approach underlying content-based instruction allows young learners to internalise key aspects of the target system, such as phonologically salient and high-frequency lexical items, as well as syntactic patterns that are congruent with the L1.”
§ Research on form-focused instruction in immersion classrooms: Implications for theory and practice > 5 conc lu s i on
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Harley (1993) source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper relies on this without support.
The five quasi-experimental studies are sufficiently comparable in design, measures, and contexts to permit a comparative synthesis of their effects.
“This article presents a comparative analysis of five quasi-experimental studies involving close to 1,200 students, ranging in age from 7 to 14, in 49 French immersion classrooms in Canada”
The paper relies on this without support.
The outcome measures used in the five studies validly capture the targeted linguistic features and their use in communicative contexts.
“Pretests, immediate post tests, and delayed post tests were administered to the experimental group as well as to a comparison group to compare classes on three measures: a cloze test, a composition task and an oral interview.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The instructional treatments in the studies were implemented with sufficient fidelity to test the intended form-focused instruction.
“Furthermore, experimental teachers indicated that the treatment materials focused much more on content than on form, even though many students had not even mastered the formal aspects of the verb inflections.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The findings from the five studies can be generalized to French immersion classrooms in Canada more broadly.
“Findings suggest that effective form-focused instruction in immersion contexts, at least with respect to interlanguage features that have reached a developmental plateau, includes a balanced distribution of opportunities for noticing, language awareness and controlled practice with feedback.”
Citations
Cites
Shiffrin, R. M., & Schneider, W. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.2.127 · Cited by 7,335
Anderson, J. R. (2013) · doi:10.4324/9781315799438 · Cited by 6,761
The Role of Consciousness in Second Language Learning1
SCHMIDT, R. W. (1990) · Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1093/applin/11.2.129 · Cited by 5,435 · cited 2×
“In his model, noticing plays a central role in converting input to intake during input processing (see also Schmidt, 1990), and is triggered by input qualities such as frequency and salience and by input features that have been contrived for instructional purposes (e.g., typographical enhancement).”
BackgroundCognitive Psychology and Its Implications
Anderson, J. R. (2014) · Cited by 4,121
The Role of the Linguistic Environment in Second Language Acquisition
Long, M. H. (1996) · Handbook of Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1016/b978-012589042-7/50015-3 · Cited by 3,927
A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning
Garcia, P., & Skehan, P. (1999) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.2307/3587891 · Cited by 3,489
(1985) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 3,037
Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition
Hosenfeld, C., O’Malley, J. M., & Chamot, A. U. (1992) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.2307/329782 · Cited by 2,935
Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition
O'Malley, J. M., & Chamot, A. U. (1990) · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139524490 · Cited by 2,771
CORRECTIVE FEEDBACK AND LEARNER UPTAKE: Negotiation of Form in Communicative Classrooms
Lyster, R., & Ranta, L. (1997) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263197001034 · Cited by 2,629 · cited 1×
“Recent classroom observation studies (e.g., Lyster and Ranta, 1997; Lyster, 1998; 2002) have shown that meaningful interaction related to content is typical of immersion classroom discourse.”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Research works printed but not linked: 16
- [16]16. Doughty, C. and Williams, J. (1998). Pedagogical choices in focus on form. In: C. Doughty and J. Williams (eds), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 197-261.
- [19]19. Ellis, R. (2002). The place of grammar instruction in the second/foreign curriculum. In: E. Hinkel and S. Fotos (eds), New perspectives on grammar teaching in second language classrooms. Mahway, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, pp. 17-34.
- [21]21. Genesee, F. (1991). Second language learning in school settings: Lessons from immersion. In: A. Reynolds (ed.), Bilingualism, multiculturalism, and second language learning. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, pp. 183-202.
- [25]25. Harley, B. (1998) The role of form-focused tasks in promoting child L2 acquisition In: C. Doughty and J. Williams (eds), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 156-174.
- [27]27. Harley, B. and Swain, M. (1984). The interlanguage of immersion students and its implications for second language teaching. In: A. Davies, C. Criper and A. Howatt (eds), Interlanguage. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, pp. 291-311.
- [32]32. Karmiloff-Smith, A. (1979). A functional approach to child language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- [34]34. Krashen, S. (1994). The input hypothesis and its rivals. In: N. Ellis (ed.), Implicit and explicit learning of languages. London: Academic Press, pp. 45-77.
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- [36]36. Lightbown, P. (1998). The importance of timing in focus on form. In: C. Doughty and J. Williams (eds), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 177-196.
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- [42]42. Lyster, R. (1999). Immersion. In: B. Spolsky (ed.), Concise encyclopaedia of educational linguistics. Oxford: Pergamon, pp. 626-632.
- [50]50. Met, M. (1994). Teaching content through a second language. In: F. Genesee (ed.), Educating second language children. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 159- 182.
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- [70]70. Swain, M. and Lapkin, S. (1990). Aspects of the sociolinguistic performance of early and late French immersion students. In: R. Scarcella, E. Andersen and S. Krashen (eds), Developing communicative competence in a second language. New York: Newbury House, pp. 41-54.
- [72]72. Tucker, R. (1967). The French Speaker's Skill with Grammatical Gender: An Example of Rule- governed Behaviour. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, McGill University, Montreal, QC.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
INTERACTIONAL FEEDBACK AND INSTRUCTIONAL COUNTERBALANCE
Lyster, R., & Mori, H. (2006) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263106060128 · Cited by 506
“…interventions+ The counterbalance hypothesis finds support in this regard from a recent review of form-focused instructional treatments in FI classrooms ~Lyster, 2004b!, which revealed that the most effective form-focused instructional interventions ~with the most robust results! were…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationYang, Y., & Lyster, R. (2010) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263109990519 · Cited by 344
Self-citationImplicit and explicit instruction in L2 learning: Norris & Ortega (2000) revisited and updated
Goo, J., Granena, G., Yilmaz, Y., & Novella, M. (2015) · Studies in Bilingualism · doi:10.1075/sibil.48.18goo · Cited by 224
Ranta, L., & Lyster, R. (2007) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511667275.009 · Cited by 169
Self-citationTHE EFFECTS OF CORRECTIVE FEEDBACK ON INSTRUCTED L2 SPEECH PERCEPTION
Lee, A. H., & Lyster, R. (2016) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263115000194 · Cited by 133
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- LYSTER, R.
- Affiliations
- McGill University (CA)
- Corresponding author
- LYSTER, ROY
- Venue
- Journal of French Language Studies
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2004-11
- Volume
- 14
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 321-341
- ISSN
- 0959-2695 (ISSN-L)
- 1474-0079
- OpenAlex
- W2122572374
- Cited by
- 111
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 1 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 1 · 2012: 4
- FWCI
- 19.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Locations
- Journal of French Language Studies (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship@McGill (McGill) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
- Social Sciences › Linguistics and Language › French Language Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Second Language Acquisition and Learning
- Keywords
- form-focused instruction, French immersion, second language grammar, noticing, language awareness, feedback, controlled practice, conditional mood, second-person pronouns, grammatical gender, interlanguage, communication strategies
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-09-28, under version 3 of the claim definition (prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-09-28 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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