The DOI matches its Crossref record; 79 of the 83 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
The Smarter Sex: A Critical Review of Sex Differences in Intelligence
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“This perspective is not supported by research: today, most experts agree that gender differences in overall intelligence do not exist (Halpern and LaMay, 2000).”
From Gender and Education (2015) · cites this paper as Halpern and LaMay, 2000
Citations
Cites
A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance
Steele, C. M. (1997) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.52.6.613 · Cited by 6,770
How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement
Jensen, A. (1969) · Harvard Educational Review · doi:10.17763/haer.39.1.l3u15956627424k7 · Cited by 2,907
Voyer, D., Voyer, S., & Bryden, M. P. (1995) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.117.2.250 · Cited by 2,868
The g factor: the science of mental ability
(1998) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.36-2443 · Cited by 2,763
An application of prefrontal cortex function theory to cognitive aging.
West, R. L. (1996) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.120.2.272 · Cited by 2,157
Sex Differences in Cognitive Abilities
Halpern, D. F. (2000) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410605290 · Cited by 1,989
Self-citationEarly vocabulary growth: relation to language input and gender
Huttenlocher, J., Haight, W., Bryk, A., Seltzer, M., & Lyons, T. (1991) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.27.2.236 · Cited by 1,783
Experience and brain development
Greenough, W. T., Black, J. E., & Wallace, C. S. (1987) · Child Development · doi:10.2307/1130197 · Cited by 1,398
Cognitive Neuroscience: The Biology of the Mind
Gazzaniga, M. S., Ivry, R. B., & Mangun, G. R. (1998) · Cited by 1,392
Posner, M., & Raichle, M. (1994) · doi:10.5860/choice.32-1230 · Cited by 1,153
Sex Differences in Mental Test Scores, Variability, and Numbers of High-Scoring Individuals
Hedges, L. V., & Nowell, A. (1995) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.7604277 · Cited by 1,112
The Psychology of Gender: Advances through Meta-Analysis
Halpern, D. F., Hyde, J. S., & Linn, M. C. (1989) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1422961 · Cited by 609
Self-citationSternberg, R. J., Wagner, R. K., Williams, W. M., Horvath, J. A., & al, E. (1995) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.50.11.912 · Cited by 604
American Association of University Women
Meek, L. H. (1929) · Childhood Education · doi:10.1080/00094056.1929.10723462 · Cited by 596
Estrogen Replacement Therapy in Older Women
Henderson, V. W. (1994) · Archives of Neurology · doi:10.1001/archneur.1994.00540210068014 · Cited by 590
Gender differences in episodic memory
Herlitz, A., Nilsson, L., & Bäckman, L. (1997) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03211324 · Cited by 557
Banaji, M. R., & Hardin, C. D. (1996) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00346.x · Cited by 542
Functional Brain Imaging Studies of Cortical Mechanisms for Memory
Ungerleider, L. G. (1995) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.270.5237.769 · Cited by 486
Reciprocal effects of hormonal fluctuations on human motor and perceptual-spatial skills.
Hampson, E., & Kimura, D. (1988) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037//0735-7044.102.3.456 · Cited by 486
Plomin, R. J., & McClearn, G. E. (1993) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10131-000 · Cited by 486
Spatial Ability, Navigation Strategy, and Geographic Knowledge Among Men and Women
Dabbs, J., Chang, E.-L., Strong, R., & Milun, R. (1998) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/s1090-5138(97)00107-4 · Cited by 459
Willingham, W. W., & Cole, N. S. (1997) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.35-2259 · Cited by 437
Eals, M., & SILVERMAN, I. W. (1994) · Ethology and Sociobiology · doi:10.1016/0162-3095(94)90020-5 · Cited by 424
Accuracy of judging time to arrival: Effects of modality, trajectory, and gender.
Schiff, W., & Oldak, R. (1990) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037//0096-1523.16.2.303 · Cited by 391
Sex differences in intelligence: Implications for education.
Halpern, D. F. (1997) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.52.10.1091 · Cited by 364
Self-citationCasey, M. B., Nuttall, R. L., Pezaris, E., & Benbow, C. P. (1995) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.31.4.697 · Cited by 353
Reciprocal effects of hormonal fluctuations on human motor and perceptual-spatial skills.
Hampson, E., & Kimura, D. (1988) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037/0735-7044.102.3.456 · Cited by 342
Is the gender difference in mental rotation disappearing?
Masters, M. S., & Sanders, B. (1993) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/bf01067434 · Cited by 338
Sex differences in aging of the human frontal and temporal lobes
Cowell, P. E., Turetsky, B. I., Gur, R., Grossman, R. I., Shtasel, D. L., & Gur, R. (1994) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.14-08-04748.1994 · Cited by 336
Cognitive function in nondemented older women who took estrogen after menopause
Jacobs, D. M., Tang, M.-X., Stern, Y., Sano, M., Marder, K., Bell, K. L., Schofield, P., Dooneief, G., Gurland, B., & Mayeux, R. (1998) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.50.2.368 · Cited by 332
Performance measures of 16– to 86-year-old males and females on the auditory verbal learning test
Geffen, G. M., Moar, K., O'Hanlon, A., Clark, C. R., & Geffen, L. B. (1990) · The Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854049008401496 · Cited by 284
Sex differences in intelligence and brain size: A paradox resolved
Lynn, R. (1994) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(94)90030-2 · Cited by 282
Sex differences in intelligence: Implications for education.
Halpern, D. F. (1997) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.52.10.1091 · Cited by 280
Self-citationEdman, C. D. (1983) · CPOBGYN. Clinical perspectives in obstetrics and gynecology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-5525-3_6 · Cited by 268
Perceived versus meta-analytic effect sizes: An assessment of the accuracy of gender stereotypes.
Swim, J. K. (1994) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.66.1.21 · Cited by 266
Estrogen replacement therapy and longitudinal decline in visual memory
Resnick, S. M., Metter, E. J., & Zonderman, A. B. (1997) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.49.6.1491 · Cited by 257
Accuracy of judging time to arrival: Effects of modality, trajectory, and gender.
Schiff, W., & Oldak, R. (1990) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/0096-1523.16.2.303 · Cited by 250
Sex Differences in Cognitive Abilities: 3rd Edition
Halpern, D. F. (2000) · Cited by 246
Self-citationLloyd, B., & Archer, J. E. (1976) · Academic Press eBooks · Cited by 233
Estrogen replacement therapy in older women: a neuropsychological and brain MRI study
Schmidt, R., Fazekas, F., Reinhart, B., Kapeller, P., Fazekas, G., Offenbacher, H., Eber, B., Schumacher, M., & Freidl, W. (1996) · Journal of the American Geriatrics Society · doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.1996.tb01400.x · Cited by 205
Language, Gender, and Sex in Comparative Perspective
(1987) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511621918 · Cited by 201
Simpkins, J. W., Singh, M., & Bishop, J. (1994) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/0197-4580(94)90205-4 · Cited by 154
Structure of abilities in math-precocious young children: Gender similarities and differences.
Robinson, N. M., Abbott, R. D., Berninger, V. W., & Busse, J. (1996) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-0663.88.2.341 · Cited by 154
(1992) · Cited by 154
Structure of abilities in math-precocious young children: Gender similarities and differences.
Robinson, N. M., Abbott, R. D., Berninger, V. W., & Busse, J. (1996) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.88.2.341 · Cited by 154
Ohkura, T., Isse, K., Akazawa, K., Hamamoto, M., Yoshimasa, Y. A. O. I., & Hagino, N. (1995) · Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders · doi:10.1159/000106929 · Cited by 150
Gender Differences in Regional Cerebral Blood Flow
Gur, R. E., & Gur, R. C. (1990) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/16.2.247 · Cited by 138
Language and Intelligence: A Longitudinal Study of the First Eight Years
Moore, T. W. (2009) · Human Development · doi:10.1159/000270561 · Cited by 135
Is age kinder to females than to males?
Meinz, E. J., & Salthouse, T. A. (1998) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03209457 · Cited by 104
Sex differences in visuospatial working memory: Components of cognitive processing
Loring-meier, S., & Halpern, D. F. (1999) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03210836 · Cited by 101
Self-citationStumpf, H., & Stanley, J. C. (1996) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.88.2.353 · Cited by 96
Sex differences in predictions of college grades from scholastic aptitude test scores.
Stricker, L. J., Rock, D. A., & Burton, N. W. (1993) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.85.4.710 · Cited by 94
The ability to reason about movement in the visual field
Hunt, E. B., Pellegrino, J. W., Frick, R. W., Farr, S. A., & Alderton, D. L. (1988) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/0160-2896(88)90024-4 · Cited by 91
Estradiol is related to visual memory in healthy young men.
Kampen, D. L., & Sherwin, B. B. (1996) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037//0735-7044.110.3.613 · Cited by 82
Lifelong Estrogen Exposure and Cognitive Performance in Elderly Women
Smith, C. A., McCleary, C. A., Murdock, G. A., Wilshire, T. W., Buckwalter, D. K., Bretsky, P., MARMOL, L. M., Gorsuch, R. L., & Buckwalter, J. G. (1999) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1006/brcg.1999.1078 · Cited by 78
Stumpf, H., & Eliot, J. F. (1995) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(95)00029-6 · Cited by 76
Mackintosh, N. J. (1996) · Journal of Biosocial Science · doi:10.1017/s0021932000022586 · Cited by 76
Estradiol is related to visual memory in healthy young men.
Kampen, D. L., & Sherwin, B. B. (1996) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037/0735-7044.110.3.613 · Cited by 72
IV. Asking the Right Questions: Feminist Psychology and Sex Differences
Hare‐Mustin, R. T., & Marecek, J. (1994) · Feminism & Psychology · doi:10.1177/0959353594044007 · Cited by 71
Genetics of reading disability.
DeFries, J. C., & Gillis, J. J. (1993) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10131-006 · Cited by 69
Stumpf, H., & Jackson, D. N. (1994) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(94)90281-x · Cited by 67
Sex Differences in Mental Rotations: An Effect of Time Limits?
Resnick, S. M. (1993) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1006/brcg.1993.1005 · Cited by 67
Cognitive gender differences: Where are they, and why are they there?
Feingold, A. (1996) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s1041-6080(96)90004-7 · Cited by 61
The Myth That Schools Shortchange Girls: Social Science in the Service of Deception.
Kleinfeld, J. (1998) · Cited by 60
Psychometric studies of aging and intelligence.
Jl, H. (1975) · PubMed · Cited by 58
Weiss, L. G., & Prifitera, A. (1995) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-4405(95)00016-f · Cited by 52
Do men show more rapid age-associated decline in simulated everyday verbal memory than do women?
Larrabee, G. J., & Crook, T. H. (1993) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.8.1.68 · Cited by 52
Age and Gender-Related Differences in Strategy Use for Route Information
Brown, L. N., Lahar, C. J., & Mosley, J. L. (1998) · Environment and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0013916598302001 · Cited by 45
Stumpf, H. (1995) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/1041-6080(95)90002-0 · Cited by 43
Do men show more rapid age-associated decline in simulated everyday verbal memory than do women?
Larrabee, G. J., & Crook, T. H. (1993) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.8.1.68 · Cited by 40
Stimulus features and sex differences in mental rotation test performance
Birenbaum, M., Kelly, A. E., & Levi-Keren, M. (1994) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/0160-2896(94)90053-1 · Cited by 37
V. Beyond Sex Differences: A Project for Feminist Psychology
Hollway, W. (1994) · Feminism & Psychology · doi:10.1177/0959353594044008 · Cited by 36
The WAIS‐R(UK): Basic psychometric properties in an adult UK sample
Crawford, J. R., Gray, C. D., & Allan, K. M. (1995) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8260.1995.tb01458.x · Cited by 25
An investigation of gender differences in cognitive abilities among Chinese high school students
Huang, J. (1993) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/0191-8869(93)90012-r · Cited by 21
Performance on a coincidence timing task correlates with intelligence
Smith, G. A., & McPhee, K. A. (1987) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/0160-2896(87)90003-1 · Cited by 21
Lynn, R. (1998) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(98)00114-7 · Cited by 12
New data on black infant precocity
Lynn, R. (1998) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(97)00235-3 · Cited by 11
Shucard, D. W., Shucard, J. L., & Thomas, D. (1987) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511621918.015 · Cited by 10
Public policy implications of sex differences in cognitive abilities.
Halpern, D. F. (1996) · Psychology Public Policy and Law · doi:10.1037//1076-8971.2.3-4.561 · Cited by 8
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
4 of the 83 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 9
- Astin, A., Sax, L., Korn, W., and Mahoney, K. (1995). The American Freshman: National Norms for Fall 1995. Higher Education Research Institute, Los Angeles.
- Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of Mind. Basic, New York.
- Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional Intelligence. Bantam, New York.
- Henning-Stout, M., and Close-Conoley, J. (1992). Gender: A subtle influence in the culture of the school. In Medway, F. J. and Cafferty, T. P. (Eds.), School Psychology: A Social Psychological Perspective (pp. 113-135). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
- Hunt, M. (1999). The New Know-Nothings. Transaction, New Brunswick.
- Makintosh, N. J. (1996). Sex differences in IQ. J. Biosoc. Sci. 28: 559-571.
- Paganini-Hill, A., Buckwalter, J. G., Logan, C. G., and Henderson, V. W. (1993). Estrogen replacement and Alzheimer's disease in women. Soc. Neurosci. Abst. 19: 1046.
- Smolak, L. (1986). Infancy, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
- Stanley, J. C., Benbow, C. P., Brody, L. E., Dauber, S., and Lupkowski, A. (1992). Gender differences in eighty-six nationally standardized aptitude and achievement tests. In Colangelo, N., Assouline, S. G., and Ambroson, D. L. (Eds.), Talent Development, Vol. 1: Proceedings from the 1991 Henry B. and Jocelyn Wallace National Research Symposium on Talent Development. Trillium Press, Unionville, NY, pp. 42-65.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Intelligence and neural efficiency
Neubauer, A. C., & Fink, A. (2009) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.04.001 · Cited by 878
Johnson, S. K., Murphy, S. E., Zewdie, S., & Reichard, R. J. (2008) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2007.12.002 · Cited by 492
Maxwell, S., Reynolds, K. J., Lee, E., Subašić, E., & Bromhead, D. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02069 · Cited by 450
Kaufman, S. B. (2006) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.07.009 · Cited by 319
Sex Differences in Cognition are Stable Over a 10-Year Period in Adulthood and Old Age
de Frias, C. M., Nilsson, L., & Herlitz, A. (2006) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825580600678418 · Cited by 232
Metadata
- Authors
- Halpern, D. F., & LaMay, M. L.
- Affiliations
- California State University, San Bernardino (US)
- Loma Linda University (US)
- ORCID
- Halpern, Diane F.
- Venue
- Educational Psychology Review
- Published
- 2000-06
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 229-246
- ISSN
- 1040-726X (ISSN-L)
- 1573-336X
- OpenAlex
- W1543887101
- Cited by
- 321
- References
- 83
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 18 · 2014: 12 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 22
- FWCI
- 3.25
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- Educational Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skills
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Keywords
- sex differences in intelligence, general intelligence, cognitive ability, working memory, visual imagery, verbal ability, mathematics achievement, intellectual disability, nature versus nurture, cross-cultural comparison, lifespan development
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review