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Conceptualization and Assessment of Adolescents’ Engagement and Disengagement in School: A Multidimensional School Engagement Scale
Abstract
Abstract. Increasing school engagement is critical for improving academic achievement and reducing dropout rates. In order to increase student engagement and identify those students who are most disengaged from school, we need to conceptualize and measure student engagement appropriately. This study used a mixed method sequential exploratory design to develop and validate a student survey measure of school engagement that reflects a multidimensional conceptualization of engagement. Psychometric tests were conducted with a large racially and socioeconomically diverse sample of 5th–12th graders in the United States ( N = 3,632). Findings demonstrated that a bifactor multidimensional model fit the data appropriately and provided evidence of measurement invariance, construct, and predictive validity. Results provided a psychometrically sound foundation for capturing the behavioral, emotional, cognitive, and social aspects of student engagement and disengagement in school.
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“which, although related, are two distinctly separate constructs (Wang et al., 2019).”
From Unpacking student engagement in higher education learning analytics: a systematic review (2024) · cites this paper as Wang et al., 2019
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Understanding afterschool engagement: Investigating developmental outcomes for adolescents
Sjogren, A. L., Zumbrunn, S. K., Broda, M., Bae, C. L. L., & Deutsch, N. L. (2021) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/ajcp.12554 · Cited by 9
Steenberghs, N., Lavrijsen, J., Kiuru, N. H., & Verschueren, K. (2023) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-023-01895-3 · Cited by 10
“…that supportive relationships with teachers and parents are important for a positive development of engagement, evidence on the role of peers is more scarce (Fredricks et al., 2019; Roorda et al., 2017; Vasquez et al., 2016) and mainly focused on friendships (Kindermann, 2008; Wang et al., 2018).”
de Faria, S. R., Pedras, S., Inman, R. A., Lopes, J. C., & Moreira, P. (2023) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12853 · Cited by 11
Fiorini, L., Scatigna, S., Pugi, L., Adelucci, E., Cavallo, F., Bruni, A., Carotenuto, B., Lieto, M., Lucchese, B. D., Matteucci, E., et al. (2024) · Lecture notes in bioengineering · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-77318-1_16 · Cited by 7
Griffin, C. B. (2018) · Journal of Applied School Psychology · doi:10.1080/15377903.2018.1458672 · Cited by 8
“Within this conceptualization, behavioral engagement includes practices and actions that students direct toward school and includes positive conduct, involvement in academic tasks (e.g., completing classwork), and participation in extracurricular activities (Wang et al., 2017).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialГеннадьевна, Ф. Т., Potanina, A. M., & Моросанова, В. И. (2022) · Психология Журнал Высшей школы экономики · doi:10.17323/1813-8918-2022-4-835-846 · Cited by 7
Dental Student Perceptions of Distance Education over Time: A Mixed-Methods Study
Yeh, S. Y., Ramesh, N. P., Kaczmarek-Stewart, K., Ahn, C., Li, A., & Ohyama, H. (2023) · Dentistry Journal · doi:10.3390/dj11100233 · Cited by 8
“Previous studies found that engagement positively correlated with academic performance in distance learning environments [34,35] and highlighted the use of collaborative learning strategies to enhance engagement [36].”
BackgroundShore, Ú., & Kelleher, S. (2024) · Irish Educational Studies · doi:10.1080/03323315.2024.2352440 · Cited by 6
“…engagement pertains to a student ’ s personal investment within their learning tasks, including re fl ecting on their work, engaging in deep learning strategies, and endeavouring to achieve high standards and understand sophisticated ideas (Fredricks, Blumenfeld, and Paris 2004; Wang et al.2019 ).”
Rabby, S. M., Akhi, A. A., Talukder, M. S., & Das, S. (2025) · On the Horizon The International Journal of Learning Futures · doi:10.1108/oth-02-2025-0017 · Cited by 10
Exploring L2 learner engagement in spoken English practices with a GenAI-powered chatbot
Min, S., Gao, Y., & Zhang, J. (2026) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2026.103982 · Cited by 12
Toth, G., Tomlins, M., James, T., Bond, K., & Kumar, B. H. (2024) · Open Learning The Journal of Open Distance and e-Learning · doi:10.1080/02680513.2024.2322510 · Cited by 6
“…engagement literature focuses on students’ perception of what engages them (see, for example, Tinto, 2017; Tsai et al., 2021; Zepke et al., 2014); however, a full understanding of student engagement should also include teachers’ perceptions of engagement (Phakiti et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2019).”
Bellini, D., Barbieri, B., Mondo, M., Cubico, S., & Ramaci, T. (2022) · Social Sciences · doi:10.3390/socsci11120548 · Cited by 8
Fomina, T. G., Potanina, A. M., Bondarenko, I. N., & Morosanova, V. I. (2023) · Experimental Psychology (Russia) · doi:10.17759/exppsy.2022150411 · Cited by 6
“Методы: опросная методика «Многомерная шкала школьной вовлеченности» (Wang et al., 2019; Фомина, Моросанова, 2020); методика В.И. Моросановой «Стиль саморегуляции учебной деятель-ности — ССУД-М».”
Alanazi, A. M. M., Elias, N. F. B., Mohamed, H. B., & Sahari, N. (2024) · KSII Transactions on Internet and Information Systems · doi:10.3837/tiis.2024.03.005 · Cited by 10
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Pérez-Salas, C., Moreno, V. P., & Carvajal, C. B. M. (2022) · Perspectiva educacional · doi:10.4151/07189729-vol.61-iss.3-art.1315 · Cited by 4
Psychological Resources of Adolescents' Achievement: Differential Aspects
Potanina, A. M., & Morosanova, V. I. (2023) · Psychological-Educational Studies · doi:10.17759/psyedu.2023150301 · Cited by 8
“School engagement as an external manifestation of motivation [37] is also significantly related to academic success: the higher the engagement, the higher the achievement [28].”
BackgroundInman, R. A., Moreira, P., Cunha, D., & Castro, J. (2020) · Revista de Psicodidáctica (English ed ) · doi:10.1016/j.psicoe.2020.03.001 · Cited by 5
Pérez-Salas, C., Zañartu, I., Chávez-Castillo, Y., & Rodriguez-Díaz, V. (2025) · Revista Española de Pedagogía · doi:10.22550/2174-0909.4460 · Cited by 6
Teaching strategies for engaging socially disadvantaged students in the classroom
Majcík, M., & Obrovská, J. (2025) · International Journal of Educational Development · doi:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2025.103372 · Cited by 4
School engagement and implications for future opportunities: Roma students’ trajectories
Moreira, T. M. T., Rosário, P. J. S. L. F., Ferreira, M. D. A., Pereira, A., & Fuentes, S. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1535063 · Cited by 4
Gan, Y., Zhang, T., Gao, J., Li, Y., Zhang, J., & Wang, W. (2023) · Journal of Psychology in Africa · doi:10.1080/14330237.2023.2175965 · Cited by 4
Shin, A. (2023) · Journal of Student Research · doi:10.47611/jsrhs.v12i3.5014 · Cited by 7
Potanina, A. M., & Morosanova, V. I. (2023) · Theoretical and experimental psychology · doi:10.11621/tep-23-37 · Cited by 7
Liu, Y., Maltais, N. S., Milner‐Bolotin, M., & Chachashvili‐Bolotin, S. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1416631 · Cited by 5
Sridharan, B., Amrollahi, A., McKay, J., & de Castro, V. B. (2025) · Studies in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/03075079.2025.2536588 · Cited by 7
“To realise this, a deep understanding of student behaviours, including the patterns of engagement and disengagement, is critical for predicting their academic performance (Wang et al. 2017).”
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Moreira, T., Martins, J. A. O., Núñez, J. C., Oliveira, A., Martins, J., & Rosário, P. J. S. L. F. (2022) · Revista de Psicodidáctica (English ed ) · doi:10.1016/j.psicoe.2022.11.003 · Cited by 6
Sicard, A., Taillandier‐Schmitt, A., Nugier, A., & Martinot, D. (2023) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-023-05098-8 · Cited by 4
“The present study makes a fourth contribution by testing the effect of ACB on the different steps of the gradual process of disengagement, from the psychological process of mental withdrawal (i.e., discounting and devaluing) to the achievement (Wang et al., 2019 ).”
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“Cognitive engagement refers to mental e ff ort and the strategies learners use in learning situations (Wang et al. 2019).”
Instruction and task appraisals as antecedents of momentary engagement and disaffection
Järvinen, J., Hietajärvi, L., Ketonen, E. E., & Salmela‐Aro, K. (2025) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410.2025.2501144 · Cited by 5
“Empirical evidence also points to the fact that engagement and disaffection are structurally distinct and predict academic outcomes, such as achievement and school absenteeism, differently (Wang, Fredricks et al., 2019).”
Brieba-Fuenzalida, J. (2025) · Revista Española de Pedagogía · doi:10.22550/2174-0909.4509 · Cited by 3
Shi, Y., Hui, X., Li, G., Ouyang, M., & Yang, C. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1687667 · Cited by 6
Bondarenko, I. N., Fomina, T. G., & Morosanova, V. I. (2024) · Experimental Psychology (Russia) · doi:10.17759/exppsy.2024170206 · Cited by 3
“Learning Interest Index”: An Inventory Test for Assessing Learning Motivation in Adolescents
Tolstykh, N. N., Fedorov, V. V., Kharchenko, M. A., Погодина, А. В., & Babanin, P. A. (2021) · Psychological Science and Education · doi:10.17759/pse.2021260505 · Cited by 3
“Понятие «вовлеченность» в некоторой степени близко понятию «познавательная мотивация», но не тождественно ему, отражая более широкий спектр мотивационных и поведенческих составляющих [6; 17; 23; 30; 39].”
Aculturación y participación escolar: el caso de los estudiantes portugueses de la comunidad gitana
Moreira, T., Martins, J. A. O., Núñez, J. C., Oliveira, A., Martins, J., & Rosário, P. J. S. L. F. (2023) · Revista de Psicodidáctica · doi:10.1016/j.psicod.2022.11.003 · Cited by 6
Lärares förståelse av engagemang i hybrid-, fjärr, och distansundervisning
Bergdahl, N. (2022) · Pedagogisk forskning i Sverige · doi:10.15626/pfs28.03.02 · Cited by 4
Espaňola, R. P., & Ouano, J. A. (2024) · Malaysian Journal of Learning and Instruction · doi:10.32890/mjli2024.21.1.8 · Cited by 9
Plante, I., Chaffee, K. E., Gauthier, É., Olivier, É., & Dupéré, V. (2024) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12678 · Cited by 3
Guaña–Moya, J. (2024) · Revista Ingenio global. · doi:10.62943/rig.v3n2.2024.127 · Cited by 3
Student Engagement in an Online Engineering Afterschool Program During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Rangel, V. S., Henderson, J. A., Martinez, C., & Greer, R. (2022) · Journal of Pre-College Engineering Education Research (J-PEER) · doi:10.7771/2157-9288.1347 · Cited by 2
School Connectedness and School Nursing Services: A Concept Analysis
McCabe, E. M., Pestaner, M. C., Forbes, C., & Powell, S. B. (2025) · The Journal of School Nursing · doi:10.1177/10598405251386120 · Cited by 2
“School engagement is a multidimensional construct comprised of cognitive, behavioral, and emotional dimensions (Wang et al., 2019).”
Hochuli, K., & Jud, J. (2025) · Learning Culture and Social Interaction · doi:10.1016/j.lcsi.2025.100923 · Cited by 2
Qu, J., & Bhatta, D. D. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0337038 · Cited by 2
Flaherty, E. M., Strelan, P., & Kohler, M. J. (2025) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-025-02285-7 · Cited by 5
Sociocultural Perspectives On Student Engagement
Liem, G. A. D., Fredricks, J. A., & Wong, Z. Y. (2025) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-83708-556-920251003 · Cited by 2
Self-citationDeng, C., Zhang, Y., & Liao, X. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1842826 · Cited by 2
’MPower Shows Me Who I Want to Be’: A Qualitative Study of a Youth Purpose Program
Lincoln, B., Wood, W., Reed, M., Sepulveda, J., Liang, B., Hill, N. E., & Perella, J. (2021) · European Journal of Psychology and Educational Research · doi:10.12973/ejper.4.2.113 · Cited by 3
“…student engagement is significantly impacted by the degree to which adolescents: believe that school is important to achieving their goals (Lovelace et al., 2018); have meaningful relationships with school staff (Wang & Eccles, 2012); and engage in social interaction with peers (Wang et al., 2019).”
BackgroundJiang, C. (2023) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440231181435 · Cited by 2
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Шилова, Н. П. (2023) · Psychological-Educational Studies · doi:10.17759/psyedu.2023150203 · Cited by 2
Fomina, T. G., Bondarenko, I. N., & Morosanova, V. I. (2023) · Вестник Российского университета дружбы народов. Серия: Психология и педагогика · doi:10.22363/2313-1683-2023-20-3-560-577 · Cited by 2
Inman, R. A., de Faria, S. R., Pedras, S., & Moreira, P. (2024) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2024.102469 · Cited by 4
Individual Typological Trajectories of School Engagement in Adolescents: A Longitudinal Study
Morosanova, V. I., & Potanina, A. M. (2024) · Psychological Science and Education · doi:10.17759/pse.2024290612 · Cited by 2
Martinot, D., Beaton, A. M., & Birsen, G. (2025) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-025-10064-2 · Cited by 2
“Furthermore, school engagement is viewed as a multidimensional concept (e.g., Estell & Perdue, 2013; Fredricks et al., 2004, 2019; Wang et al., 2019; see for a review Martins et al., 2022).”
InfluentialQuiroga, V. M., Pérez-Salas, C., & Zañartu, I. (2025) · International Journal of Special Education (IJSE) · doi:10.52291/ijse.2025.40.8 · Cited by 2
Rethinking engagement with learning for neurodiverse students
Bailey, J., & Baker, S. T. (2022) · Psychology of Education Review · doi:10.53841/bpsper.2022.46.2.32 · Cited by 5
Alkandari, K. (2024) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440241255844 · Cited by 9
“Furthermore, student disengagement has often been ignored despite it having detrimental repercussions on the individual and the institution (M. T. Wang et al., 2017).”
School Engagement and Achievement in Sibling Pairs: Gender and Birth Order Matter
Troesch, L. M., Ledermann, T., Jones, J. W., & Grob, A. (2018) · Journal of Relationships Research · doi:10.1017/jrr.2018.18 · Cited by 2
Learning motivation and engagement
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“Active student behavioral engagement is essential across all learning modalities, as it promotes effective learning and enhances educational outcomes (Fredricks et al., 2004, 2016; Kearsley & Shneiderman, 1998 ; Wang et al., 2019).”
Rantavuori, P., & Sannino, A. (2025) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/01614681251408929 · Cited by 1
“We discuss this concept along the lines proposed by Skinner et al. (2016) and Wang et al. (2019), according to whom engaged students find what school offers satisfying and a significant resource for achieving their goals and recovering from setbacks.”
InfluentialVincent, C. G., Gau, J. M., Girvan, E. J., Inglish, J., McClure, H., Svanks, R., & Reiley, D. (2026) · Improving Schools · doi:10.1177/13654802261419882 · Cited by 1
“It was derived from existing measures of autonomy, relatedness, and competence (Tian et al., 2014), victimization and aggression (Toomey et al., 2014), teacher-student relationships (Murray & Zvoch, 2011) and school engagement (Wang et al., 2019).”
Does income moderate the adverse childhood experiences – School engagement relationship?
Augustinovic, A., Walcott, C. M., Schultz, B. K., & Smith, A. W. (2026) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2026.108912 · Cited by 1
Nguyen, P. V., Pham, H. T., & Dang, V. H. (2026) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-026-01147-5 · Cited by 1
“These dimensions are applied across contexts (e.g., classrooms, extracurriculars) and timeframes (e.g., daily interactions, longitudinal patterns) (Wang et al., 2019), yet inconsistencies in definition and measurement persist (Azevedo, 2015; Wong & Liem, 2022).”
Music teacher wellbeing and flourishing in Australian primary schools
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Papel del castigo parental en relación entre la adaptación económica y la inclusión escolar de niños
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Pérez-Salas, C., Parra, V. S., Ortega, A., Sáez-Delgado, F., Ramírez-Peña, P. F., & Zañartu, I. (2023) · International Journal of Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1080/20473869.2023.2243414 · Cited by 1
“The same phenomenon was observed for the MSES, in which reliability indices for both formats and samples are similar to those reported in the validation sample (Wang et al. 2019).”
A study on the psychological assessment of young children based on multivariate statistical analysis
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El compromiso estudiantil en Escuelas que implementan Prácticas Restaurativas
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Digital, IA et formation des adultes : synthèse de treize ans de recherche internationale
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Resistencias y adhesiones escolares: La importancia del origen social
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Syamsuar, S., Zen, Z., & Reflianto, R. (2023) · Indonesian Journal of Instructional Media and Model · doi:10.32585/ijimm.v5i1.4110 · Cited by 1
“…engagement in foreign language learning, such as the opportunity for speaking practice among students (Kahu, 2013a), as well as the core dimensions influencing students' cognitive and behavioral aspects discussed by Wang, Fredricks, et al. (2019), which were also acknowledged by (Kahu, 2013b).”
BackgroundTeacher-Student Ratings of Social Skills and Problem Domains Among Ninth-Grade Students
Tan, K. (2019) · American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting (AERA) · doi:10.3102/1439918
How assessing district response to COVID-19 can lead to positive change
Levenbrook, H. (2022) · doi:10.17760/d20455969
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(2023) · Frontiers research topics · doi:10.3389/978-2-83251-636-2
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Re-engaging latinx English learners in middle school: an action research study
Blenis-Gittens, A. (2024) · Digital Repository Service (Northeastern University) · doi:10.17760/d20649867
Educational tutoring in school engagement in secondary education students
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“Likewise, Wang et al. (2019) determined a high impact of CE on academic performance, because it was shown that students who are engaged tend to get better grades, participate in extracurricular activities, and have a positive attitude towards learning.”
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“…sjundeklassisternas nyligen upplevda övergångsskede från de lägre skol-stadierna till nuvarande årskurs sju som medför en hel del med förväntningar och anpassningsförmåga, samtidigt som pågående pubertet och psykosociala utveck-lingsfas innebär utmaningar i tonåringarnas vardag (Wang et al., 2019).”
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Self-citationWang, M.-T., Scanlon, C. L., & Huguley, J. P. (2025) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-83708-556-920251006
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Wang, M.-T., Fredricks, J., Ye, F., Hofkens, T., & Linn, J. S.
- Affiliations
- University of Pittsburgh (US)
- Connecticut College (US)
- Department of Psychology in Education, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
- Venue
- European Journal of Psychological Assessment
- Publisher
- Hogrefe Publishing Group
- Published
- 2019-07
- Volume
- 35
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 592-606
- ISSN
- 1015-5759 (ISSN-L)
- 2151-2426
- OpenAlex
- W2766396892
- Cited by
- 214
- References
- 49
- Citations by year
- 2026: 21 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 37 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 11
- FWCI
- 14.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- European Journal of Psychological Assessment (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Youth Development and Social Support
- Keywords
- school engagement, school disengagement, adolescents, student engagement measurement, bifactor model, measurement invariance, construct validity, predictive validity, academic performance, school dropout
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