Microbial communities from the world’s largest lithium reserve, Salar de Atacama, Chile: Life at high LiCl concentrations
Open accessAbstract
Salar de Atacama is one of the largest global reservoirs of natural lithium brines (mean lithium concentration = 1,500 ppm), enabling Chile to be a leading producer of lithium products. This large salar (3,000 km 2), located in the Atacama Desert at 2,300 m above sea level, is dominated by microorganisms; however, little is known about the microbes present in the brines associated with this economically important mining process. Here we study lithium as a modulator of microbial richness and diversity in brines representing natural conditions (34.7% salinity) and conditions prior to lithium production with a concentrated brine (55.6% salinity). Brines only supported a single archaeal family (Halobacteriaceae): natural brines included the archaeal genera Halovenus, Natronomonas, Haloarcula, and Halobacterium. Concentrated brines included the archaeal genera Halovenus, Halobacterium, and Halococcus. The most abundant bacterial families in natural brine were Rhodothermaceae and Staphylococcaceae; Xanthomonadaceae dominated the bacterial community in the concentrated brine. A comparison of entire microbial community (Archaea and Bacteria) revealed that only seven operational taxonomic units were shared between samples, all of which were Archaea. Further, our results showed that Bacteria were phylogenetically more diverse and rich in the concentrated brine, while archaeal diversity was maximized in the natural brine. The concentrated lithium brines of the Salar de Atacama represent one of the most saline environments described to date (dominated by LiCl). We suggest that elevated concentrations of lithium could greatly modulate microbial diversity and give insights into the adaptive biology of microorganisms required to cope with extremely high concentrations of salts that extend beyond that of NaCl, a far more commonly studied salt.
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Evaporation ponds are easily scalable but unsustainable due to high land and water usage.
“Indeed, evaporation ponds are easily scalable but unsustainable due to high land and water usage.”
From Pathways to Greener Primary Lithium Extraction for a Really Sustainable Energy Transition: Environmental Challenges and Pioneering Innovations (2024) · cites this paper as [29]
Section 2.1 (page unavailable) describes pumping brine at more than 31.5 L/s into ponds where water evaporates over 12–14 months. That supports the claim’s water-use aspect, but the paper does not assess whether the ponds are easily scalable, require high land use, or are unsustainable. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe combined effects of climate change and lithium mining have already directly reduced the local populations of two of the three flagship species of flamingos that depend on surface water and uniquely threatened cyanobacteria as a food source in Andean salt flats.
“The combined effects of climate change and lithium mining have already directly reduced the local populations of two of the three flagship species of flamingos that depend on surface water and uniquely threatened cyanobacteria as a food source in Andean salt flats”
From Lithium and water: Hydrosocial impacts across the life cycle of energy storage (2024) · cites this paper as Cubillos et al., 2018
The discussion (page unavailable) says northern Chilean salt flats face threats from water extraction for mining and salt exploitation, and reports that elevated lithium can affect microbial diversity. It does not report climate change and mining directly reducing two flamingo populations, or establish that cyanobacteria are uniquely threatened as flamingo food. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredHard rock mining has moderate scalability, limited by energy intensity and environmental impact.
“Hard rock mining has moderate scalability, limited by energy intensity and environmental impact.”
From Pathways to Greener Primary Lithium Extraction for a Really Sustainable Energy Transition: Environmental Challenges and Pioneering Innovations (2024) · cites this paper as [29]
The Introduction describes lithium extraction from Salar de Atacama brines using evaporation ponds, not hard-rock mining. A later discussion mentions environmental threats associated with water extraction and salt mining, but does not assess hard-rock mining’s scalability, energy intensity, or environmental impact. Searches for those terms found no passage addressing the claim; page numbers were unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe water contained within brine is not available for anthropogenic uses, though it may support other organisms and ecosystems.
“However, brine-related impacts should not be treated as equivalent to fresh water consumption as the water contained within brine is not available for anthropogenic uses, though it may support other organisms and ecosystems (Cubillos et al., 2018).”
From Life cycle assessment and water use impacts of lithium production from salar deposits: Challenges and opportunities (2024) · cites this paper as Cubillos et al., 2018
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GEOLOGIA DE LOS DEPOSITOS SALINOS ANDINOS, PROVINCIA DE ANTOFAGASTA, CHILE
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“…of the three flagship species of flamingos that depend on surface water and uniquely threatened cyanobacteria as a food source in Andean salt flats (Bonelli & Dorador, 2021; Cubillos et al., 2018; Gajardo & Red (cid:1) on, 2019; Gutiérrez et al., 2022; Marconi et al., 2022; Romero et al., 2012).”
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Insights into the microbiology of the chaotropic brines of Salar de Atacama, Chile
Cubillos, C. F., Paredes, A., Yáñez, C., Palma, J., Severino, E., Vejar, D., Grágeda, M., & Dorador, C. (2019) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2019.01611 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Self-citation
- Authors
- Cubillos, C. F., Aguilar, P., Grágeda, M., & Dorador, C.
- Affiliations
- Universidad de Antofagasta (CL)
- Universität Innsbruck (AT)
- Corresponding author
- Dorador, Cristina
- Venue
- Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences
- Publisher
- American Geophysical Union (AGU)
- Published
- 2018-12
- Volume
- 123
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 3668-3681
- ISSN
- 2169-8953 (ISSN-L)
- 2169-8961
- OpenAlex
- W2902640711
- Cited by
- 51
- References
- 107
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 3
- FWCI
- 2.07
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Geophysical Research Biogeosciences (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Medizinische Universität Innsbruck
- Fondo Nacional de Desarrollo Científico y Tecnológico (1140179)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Microbial Community Ecology and Physiology
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Polar Research and Ecology
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Metal Extraction and Bioleaching
- Keywords
- Salar de Atacama, lithium brines, lithium chloride, microbial communities, archaeal diversity, bacterial diversity, Halobacteriaceae, Halobacterium, Haloarcula, Halococcus, Staphylococcaceae, Xanthomonadaceae, brine salinity, lithium mining
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