Cited by 2,066Aging and Gerontology ResearchPsychology of Development and EducationEgo Development and Educational Practices

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 66 of the 66 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

On the incomplete architecture of human ontogeny: Selection, optimization, and compensation as foundation of developmental theory

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Baltes, Paul B.·1997·American Psychologist

Abstract

Drawing on both evolutionary and ontogenetic perspectives, the basic biological-genetic and social-cultural architecture of human development is outlined. Three principles are involved. First, evolutionary selection pressure predicts a negative age correlation, and therefore, genome-based plasticity and biological potential decrease with age. Second, for growth aspects of human development to extend further into the life span, culture-based resources are required at ever-increasing levels. Third, because of age-related losses in biological plasticity, the efficiency of culture is reduced as life span development unfolds. Joint application of these principles suggests that the life span architecture becomes more and more incomplete with age. Degree of completeness can be defined as the ratio between gains and losses in functioning. Two examples illustrate the implications of the life span architecture proposed. The first is a general theory of development involving the orchestration of 3 component processes: selection, optimization, and compensation. The second considers the task of completing the life course in the sense of achieving a positive balance between gains and losses for all age levels. This goal is increasingly more difficult to attain as human development is extended into advanced old age.

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Crossref · 10.1037/0003-066x.52.4.366

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66 of 66 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

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Metadata

Authors
Baltes, P. B.
Affiliations
Max Planck Institute for Human Development (DE)
Corresponding author
Baltes, Paul B.
Venue
American Psychologist
Published
1997-04
Volume
52
Issue
4
Pages
366-380
ISSN
  • 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
  • 1935-990X
OpenAlex
W1994817905
Cited by
2,066
References
63
Citations by year
2026: 53 · 2025: 85 · 2024: 54 · 2023: 78 · 2022: 86 · 2021: 100 · 2020: 84 · 2019: 94 · 2018: 88 · 2017: 87 · 2016: 97 · 2015: 125 · 2014: 90 · 2013: 83 · 2012: 111
FWCI
32.01
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
other-oa
Locations
  • American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics (submittedVersion)
  • Max Planck Digital Library (submittedVersion)
  • Max Planck Digital Library (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion)
  • MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Psychology of Development and Education
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Ego Development and Educational Practices
Keywords
human ontogeny, lifespan development, developmental theory, age-related decline, biological plasticity, cultural resources, age correlation, gain and loss, old age
MeSH terms
Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Child, Child, Preschool, Biological Evolution, Female, Humans, Human Development, Infant, Life Change Events, Male, Middle Aged, Personal Satisfaction, Selection, Genetic, Social Environment

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