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On the incomplete architecture of human ontogeny: Selection, optimization, and compensation as foundation of developmental theory
Open accessAbstract
Drawing on both evolutionary and ontogenetic perspectives, the basic biological-genetic and social-cultural architecture of human development is outlined. Three principles are involved. First, evolutionary selection pressure predicts a negative age correlation, and therefore, genome-based plasticity and biological potential decrease with age. Second, for growth aspects of human development to extend further into the life span, culture-based resources are required at ever-increasing levels. Third, because of age-related losses in biological plasticity, the efficiency of culture is reduced as life span development unfolds. Joint application of these principles suggests that the life span architecture becomes more and more incomplete with age. Degree of completeness can be defined as the ratio between gains and losses in functioning. Two examples illustrate the implications of the life span architecture proposed. The first is a general theory of development involving the orchestration of 3 component processes: selection, optimization, and compensation. The second considers the task of completing the life course in the sense of achieving a positive balance between gains and losses for all age levels. This goal is increasingly more difficult to attain as human development is extended into advanced old age.
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“Although gains still occur in older adulthood, the gain/loss dynamic shifts, such that this period is characterized by an increased proportion of losses, some of which are unchangeable.”
From Acceptance and Commitment Therapy With Older Adults: Rationale and Considerations (2013) · cites this paper as Baltes, 1997
In the citing paper
“The SOC model posits that throughout life, individuals select goals toward which to devote resources and seek the optimal means to achieve the selected goal.”
From Acceptance and Commitment Therapy With Older Adults: Rationale and Considerations (2013) · cites this paper as Baltes, 1997
In the citing paper
“Some aspects of cognitive function, particularly those heavily imbued with knowledge or experience (what Baltes, 1997, refers to as the pragmatics of cognition), will be relatively well preserved in adulthood, provided that the performance context does not introduce performance-specific constraints due to challenges to impaired processing mechanisms”
From Enrichment Effects on Adult Cognitive Development: Can the Functional Capacity of Older Adults Be Preserved and Enhanced? (2008) · cites this paper as Baltes, 1997
In the citing paper
“Individuals select particular areas in which they invest time, energy, and cognitive resources to gain knowledge and experience”
From Enrichment Effects on Adult Cognitive Development: Can the Functional Capacity of Older Adults Be Preserved and Enhanced? (2008) · cites this paper as Baltes, 1997
In the citing paper
“This example of behavior further supports SOC which posits that older adults require more time, practice and cognitive support to achieve learning gains.”
From Older Adults Perceptions of Technology and Barriers to Interacting with Tablet Computers: A Focus Group Study (2017) · cites this paper as Baltes, 1997
In the citing paper
“Overall, the current results are consistent with the Selection Optimization Compensation (SOC) Theory”
From Older Adults Perceptions of Technology and Barriers to Interacting with Tablet Computers: A Focus Group Study (2017) · cites this paper as Baltes, 1997
In the citing paper
“The observed age differences are in line with theoretical suggestions from lifespan theory that the impact of environmental influences may be less pronounced in later years of life (Baltes, 1997).”
From Associations between oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) methylation, plasma oxytocin, and attachment across adulthood (2019) · cites this paper as Baltes, 1997
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Metadata
- Authors
- Baltes, P. B.
- Affiliations
- Max Planck Institute for Human Development (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Baltes, Paul B.
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 1997-04
- Volume
- 52
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 366-380
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W1994817905
- Cited by
- 2,066
- References
- 63
- Citations by year
- 2026: 53 · 2025: 85 · 2024: 54 · 2023: 78 · 2022: 86 · 2021: 100 · 2020: 84 · 2019: 94 · 2018: 88 · 2017: 87 · 2016: 97 · 2015: 125 · 2014: 90 · 2013: 83 · 2012: 111
- FWCI
- 32.01
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics (submittedVersion)
- Max Planck Digital Library (submittedVersion)
- Max Planck Digital Library (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Psychology of Development and Education
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Ego Development and Educational Practices
- Keywords
- human ontogeny, lifespan development, developmental theory, age-related decline, biological plasticity, cultural resources, age correlation, gain and loss, old age
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Child, Child, Preschool, Biological Evolution, Female, Humans, Human Development, Infant, Life Change Events, Male, Middle Aged, Personal Satisfaction, Selection, Genetic, Social Environment
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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