The DOI matches its Crossref record; 66 of the 66 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
On the incomplete architecture of human ontogeny: Selection, optimization, and compensation as foundation of developmental theory
Open accessAbstract
Drawing on both evolutionary and ontogenetic perspectives, the basic biological-genetic and social-cultural architecture of human development is outlined. Three principles are involved. First, evolutionary selection pressure predicts a negative age correlation, and therefore, genome-based plasticity and biological potential decrease with age. Second, for growth aspects of human development to extend further into the life span, culture-based resources are required at ever-increasing levels. Third, because of age-related losses in biological plasticity, the efficiency of culture is reduced as life span development unfolds. Joint application of these principles suggests that the life span architecture becomes more and more incomplete with age. Degree of completeness can be defined as the ratio between gains and losses in functioning. Two examples illustrate the implications of the life span architecture proposed. The first is a general theory of development involving the orchestration of 3 component processes: selection, optimization, and compensation. The second considers the task of completing the life course in the sense of achieving a positive balance between gains and losses for all age levels. This goal is increasingly more difficult to attain as human development is extended into advanced old age.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Although gains still occur in older adulthood, the gain/loss dynamic shifts, such that this period is characterized by an increased proportion of losses, some of which are unchangeable.”
From Acceptance and Commitment Therapy With Older Adults: Rationale and Considerations (2013) · cites this paper as Baltes, 1997
In the citing paper
“The SOC model posits that throughout life, individuals select goals toward which to devote resources and seek the optimal means to achieve the selected goal.”
From Acceptance and Commitment Therapy With Older Adults: Rationale and Considerations (2013) · cites this paper as Baltes, 1997
In the citing paper
“Some aspects of cognitive function, particularly those heavily imbued with knowledge or experience (what Baltes, 1997, refers to as the pragmatics of cognition), will be relatively well preserved in adulthood, provided that the performance context does not introduce performance-specific constraints due to challenges to impaired processing mechanisms”
From Enrichment Effects on Adult Cognitive Development: Can the Functional Capacity of Older Adults Be Preserved and Enhanced? (2008) · cites this paper as Baltes, 1997
In the citing paper
“Individuals select particular areas in which they invest time, energy, and cognitive resources to gain knowledge and experience”
From Enrichment Effects on Adult Cognitive Development: Can the Functional Capacity of Older Adults Be Preserved and Enhanced? (2008) · cites this paper as Baltes, 1997
In the citing paper
“This example of behavior further supports SOC which posits that older adults require more time, practice and cognitive support to achieve learning gains.”
From Older Adults Perceptions of Technology and Barriers to Interacting with Tablet Computers: A Focus Group Study (2017) · cites this paper as Baltes, 1997
In the citing paper
“Overall, the current results are consistent with the Selection Optimization Compensation (SOC) Theory”
From Older Adults Perceptions of Technology and Barriers to Interacting with Tablet Computers: A Focus Group Study (2017) · cites this paper as Baltes, 1997
In the citing paper
“The observed age differences are in line with theoretical suggestions from lifespan theory that the impact of environmental influences may be less pronounced in later years of life (Baltes, 1997).”
From Associations between oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) methylation, plasma oxytocin, and attachment across adulthood (2019) · cites this paper as Baltes, 1997
Citations
Cites
Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress
Hobfoll, S. E. (1989) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.44.3.513 · Cited by 18,187
Hebb, D. O. (2005) · doi:10.4324/9781410612403 · Cited by 9,825
indicated, N. A. (1950) · Journal of Consulting Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0049612 · Cited by 6,984
Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1984) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.39.4.341 · Cited by 6,544
The Adapted mind : evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture
Barkow, J. H., Cosmides, L., & Tooby, J. (1992) · Cited by 5,222
Speaking. From Intention to Articulation
Caplan, D. N. (1990) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/0166-2236(90)90151-y · Cited by 4,036
Baltes, P. B., & Baltes, M. M. (1990) · Successful Aging · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511665684.003 · Cited by 3,739
Self-citationA Dynamic Systems Approach to the Development of Cognition and Action
Thelen, E., & Smith, L. B. (1994) · doi:10.7551/mitpress/2524.001.0001 · Cited by 3,470
(1987) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 2,512
A life-span theory of control.
Heckhausen, J., & Schulz, R. (1995) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.102.2.284 · Cited by 1,844
The Handbook of aging and cognition
(1993) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.30-3520 · Cited by 1,603
Baltes, P. B., & Lindenberger, U. (1997) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.12.1.12 · Cited by 1,509
Self-citationLongevity, senescence and the genome
(1995) · General Pharmacology The Vascular System · doi:10.1016/0306-3623(95)90026-8 · Cited by 1,403
Abilities: Their Structure, Growth, and Action
Merrifield, P. R., & Cattell, R. B. (1975) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.2307/1162752 · Cited by 1,398
The Development of Cognitive Anthropology
D’Andrade, R. G. (1995) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139166645 · Cited by 1,244
Life Span Theory in Developmental Psychology
Baltes, P. B., Lindenberger, U., & Staudinger, U. M. (2007) · Handbook of Child Psychology · doi:10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0111 · Cited by 1,240
Self-citationSensory functioning and intelligence in old age: A strong connection.
Lindenberger, U., & Baltes, P. B. (1994) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.9.3.339 · Cited by 1,226
Self-citationThe Process of Successful Ageing
Baltes, M. M., & Carstensen, L. L. (1996) · Ageing and Society · doi:10.1017/s0144686x00003603 · Cited by 848
The course of adult intellectual development.
Schaie, K. W. (1994) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.49.4.304 · Cited by 822
A life span model of successful aging.
Schulz, R., & Heckhausen, J. (1996) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.51.7.702 · Cited by 815
The course of adult intellectual development
Schaie, K. W. (1994) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.49.4.304 · Cited by 799
Gains and losses in development throughout adulthood as perceived by different adult age groups.
Heckhausen, J., Dixon, R. A., & Baltes, P. B. (1989) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.25.1.109 · Cited by 650
Self-citationGenetic analysis of ageing: role of oxidative damage and environmental stresses
Martin, G. M., Austad, S. N., & Johnson, T. E. (1996) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/ng0596-25 · Cited by 646
Symbolic Action Theory and Cultural Psychology
Boesch, E. E. (1991) · Recent Research in Psychology · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-84497-3 · Cited by 619
The Evolution of an Evolutionist
(1977) · Journal of Human Evolution · doi:10.1016/s0047-2484(77)80015-8 · Cited by 615
Handbook of the psychology of aging
Bergmann, K. (1980) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/0022-3999(80)90086-0 · Cited by 594
The Aging Mind: Potential and Limits
Baltes, P. B. (1993) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/33.5.580 · Cited by 516
Self-citationInteractive minds: life-span perspectives on the social foundation of cognition
(1996) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.34-2459 · Cited by 423
Psychological compensation: A theoretical framework.
Bäckman, L., & Dixon, R. A. (1992) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.112.2.259 · Cited by 417
Hormones and the physiological architecture of life history evolution
Finch, C. E., & Rose, M. R. (1995) · The Quarterly Review of Biology · doi:10.1086/418864 · Cited by 376
On the Nature of Human Plasticity
Lerner, R. M. (1984) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511666988 · Cited by 365
Concepts and Theories of Human Development
Lerner, R. M. (2018) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203581629 · Cited by 365
The many faces of dependency in old age
Baltes, M. M. (1996) · Cited by 361
Cognitive Variability: A Key to Understanding Cognitive Development
Siegler, R. S. (1994) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-8721.ep10769817 · Cited by 346
The Search for a Psychology of Wisdom
Baltes, P. B., & Staudinger, U. M. (1993) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-8721.ep10770914 · Cited by 323
Self-citationBaltes, P. B., & Kliegl, R. (1992) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.28.1.121 · Cited by 312
Self-citationSurvival after the Age of 80 in the United States, Sweden, France, England, and Japan
Mantón, K. G., & Vaupel, J. W. (1995) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm199511023331824 · Cited by 286
Rose, M. R. (1990) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780195061338.001.0001 · Cited by 283
Differentials in Active Life Expectancy in the Older Population of the United States
Crimmins, E. M., Hayward, M. D., & Saito, Y. (1996) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences · doi:10.1093/geronb/51b.3.s111 · Cited by 248
Interactive minds: A facilitative setting for wisdom-related performance?
Staudinger, U. M., & Baltes, P. B. (1996) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.71.4.746 · Cited by 230
Self-citationOrganization of Data on Life-Span Development of Human Abilities
HORN, J. L. (1970) · Life-Span Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-293850-4.50022-4 · Cited by 226
On the plasticity of intelligence in adulthood and old age: Where Horn and Donaldson fail.
Baltes, P. B., & Schaie, K. W. (1976) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.31.10.720 · Cited by 223
Self-citationMajor abilities and development in the adult period.
Horn, J. L., & Hofer, S. M. (1992) · Cited by 206
Baltes, P. B., Dittmann‐Kohli, F., & Dixon, R. A. (1984) · MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) · Cited by 193
Self-citationOn the locus and process of magnification of age differences during mnemonic training.
Kliegl, R. M., Smith, J., & Baltes, P. B. (1990) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.26.6.894 · Cited by 187
Self-citationSelective optimization with compensation: Life-span perspectives on successful human development
Marsiske, M., Lang, F. B., Baltes, P. B., & Baltes, M. M. (1995) · MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) · Cited by 166
Self-citationCo-Evolution: Genes, Culture, and Human Diversity.
Strickland, S. S., & Durham, W. H. (1994) · Man · doi:10.2307/2804498 · Cited by 162
On the plasticity of intelligence in adulthood and old age: Where Horn and Donaldson fail.
Baltes, P. B., & Schaie, K. W. (1976) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.31.10.720 · Cited by 156
Self-citationTheoretical Perspectives on Cognitive Aging
Light, L. L., & Salthouse, T. A. (1993) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1422973 · Cited by 142
Kliegl, R. M., Maayr, U., & Krampe, R. T. (1994) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1006/cogp.1994.1005 · Cited by 138
The Hazards of Cognitive Aging
Schaie, K. W. (1989) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/29.4.484 · Cited by 135
Profiles of psychological functioning in the old and oldest old.
Smith, J., & Baltes, P. B. (1997) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.12.3.458 · Cited by 125
Self-citation(1979) · MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) · Cited by 110
Self-citationProfiles of psychological functioning in the old and oldest old.
Smith, J., & Baltes, P. B. (1997) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.12.3.458 · Cited by 92
Self-citation(1992) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 91
Plasticity and variability in psychological aging: Methodological and theoretical issues
Baltes, P. B., & Baltes, M. M. (1980) · MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) · Cited by 91
Self-citationBaltes, M. M., & Kühl, K.-P. (1992) · Journal of Gerontology · doi:10.1093/geronj/47.3.p165 · Cited by 89
The Dynamics Between Dependency and Autonomy: Illustrations Across the Life Span
Baltes, M. M., & Silverberg, S. B. (2019) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315789255-2 · Cited by 72
Social intelligence and intelligent goal pursuit: a cognitive slice of motivation.
Canton, N., & Fleeson, W. (1994) · PubMed · Cited by 62
Child psychology and life-span development
Hetherington, E. M., & Baltes, P. B. (1988) · MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) · Cited by 62
Self-citationPsychological aspects of aging: Facts and frontiers
Baltes, P. B., & Graf, P. (1996) · Max Planck Digital Library · Cited by 54
Self-citationToward a broader conceptualization of development: The role of gains and losses across the life span
Uttal, D. H., & Perlmutter, M. C. (1989) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/0273-2297(89)90025-7 · Cited by 49
Adjustment to shifting possibility frontiers in later life: Complementary adaptive modes.
Brandtstädter, J., & Wentura, D. (1995) · Cited by 49
Selection and Compensa tion in Adulthood
(2013) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203773802-12 · Cited by 32
Biological Senescence: Loss of Integration and Resilience
Yates, F. E., & Benton, L. A. (1995) · Canadian Journal on Aging / La Revue canadienne du vieillissement · doi:10.1017/s0714980800010552 · Cited by 19
Affective Relationships and Their Lifelong Development
Baltes, P. B., Featherman, D. L., & Lerner, R. M. (2014) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315807584-8 · Cited by 9
Self-citation
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Hobfoll, S. E., Halbesleben, J., Neveu, J.-P., & Westman, M. (2018) · Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032117-104640 · Cited by 5,781
Social and Psychological Resources and Adaptation
Hobfoll, S. E. (2002) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.6.4.307 · Cited by 4,594
Roberts, B. W., Walton, K. E., & Viechtbauer, W. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.1 · Cited by 3,318
Socioemotional selectivity theory and the regulation of emotion in the second half of life
Carstensen, L. L., Fung, H. H., & Charles, S. T. (2003) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1023/a:1024569803230 · Cited by 1,978
Kwasnicka, D., Dombrowski, S. U., White, M., & Sniehotta, F. (2016) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2016.1151372 · Cited by 1,476
Metadata
- Authors
- Baltes, P. B.
- Affiliations
- Max Planck Institute for Human Development (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Baltes, Paul B.
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 1997-04
- Volume
- 52
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 366-380
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W1994817905
- Cited by
- 2,066
- References
- 63
- Citations by year
- 2026: 53 · 2025: 85 · 2024: 54 · 2023: 78 · 2022: 86 · 2021: 100 · 2020: 84 · 2019: 94 · 2018: 88 · 2017: 87 · 2016: 97 · 2015: 125 · 2014: 90 · 2013: 83 · 2012: 111
- FWCI
- 32.01
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics (submittedVersion)
- Max Planck Digital Library (submittedVersion)
- Max Planck Digital Library (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Psychology of Development and Education
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Ego Development and Educational Practices
- Keywords
- human ontogeny, lifespan development, developmental theory, age-related decline, biological plasticity, cultural resources, age correlation, gain and loss, old age
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Child, Child, Preschool, Biological Evolution, Female, Humans, Human Development, Infant, Life Change Events, Male, Middle Aged, Personal Satisfaction, Selection, Genetic, Social Environment
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
