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Processing time declines exponentially during childhood and adolescence
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“Processing speed (PS), which refers to the speed with which simple cognitive operations can be performed, was included in the CB because it is very sensitive to any form of cerebral insult (see DeLuca & Kalmar, 2007; Weiler, Forbes, Kirkwood, & Waber, 2003) and to changes in development (e.g., Kail, 1991).”
From I. NIH TOOLBOX COGNITION BATTERY (CB): INTRODUCTION AND PEDIATRIC DATA (2013) · cites this paper as Kail, 1991
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Davidson, M. C., Amso, D., Anderson, L. C., & Diamond, A. (2006) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.02.006 · Cited by 2,226
Age-related change in executive function: Developmental trends and a latent variable analysis
Huizinga, M., Dolan, C. V., & van der Molen, M. W. (2006) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.01.010 · Cited by 1,636
“This finding is important, because it indicates that the developmental trends in EF task performance cannot be explained in terms of a global change in basic processing speed (e.g., Cerella & Hale, 1994; Kail, 1991; Span et al., 2004).”
InfluentialGerstadt, C. L., Hong, Y. J., & Diamond, A. (1994) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/0010-0277(94)90068-x · Cited by 1,598
Mathematical disabilities: Cognitive, neuropsychological, and genetic components.
Geary, D. C. (1993) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.114.2.345 · Cited by 1,069
Halford, G. S., Wilson, W. H., & Phillips, S. D. (1998) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x98001769 · Cited by 940
Processing speed as a mental capacity
Kail, R., & Salthouse, T. A. (1994) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/0001-6918(94)90003-5 · Cited by 850
Self-citationRelationships among processing speed, working memory, and fluid intelligence in children
Fry, A. F., & Hale, S. (2000) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0301-0511(00)00051-x · Cited by 606
An Integrative Model of the Maturation of Cognitive Control
Luna, B., Marek, S., Larsen, B., Tervo-Clemmens, B., & Chahal, R. (2015) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev-neuro-071714-034054 · Cited by 550
“This proposed model explains decreases in reaction time and response variability in cognitive control tasks, which is a hallmark of cognitive development (Luna et al. 2004, Kail 1991).”
MethodSpeed of Processing, Working Memory, and Language Impairment in Children
Leonard, L. B., Weismer, S. E., Miller, C., Francis, D. J., Tomblin, J. B., & Kail, R. V. (2007) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2007/029 · Cited by 483
Self-citationSpeed of processing in children with specific language impairment.
Miller, C. A., Kail, R., Leonard, L. B., & Tomblin, J. B. (2001) · Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2001/034 · Cited by 493
Self-citationMontgomery, J. W., Magimairaj, B. M., & Finney, M. C. (2010) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/1058-0360(2009/09-0028 · Cited by 374
Weintraub, S., Dikmen, S. S., Heaton, R. K., Tulsky, D. S., Zelazo, P. D., Slotkin, J., Carlozzi, N. E., Bauer, P. J., Wallner-Allen, K., Fox, N., et al. (2014) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617714000320 · Cited by 342
ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT: Challenges and Opportunities for Research, Programs, and Policies
Lerner, R. M., & Galambos, N. L. (1998) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.413 · Cited by 515
Cognitive components of picture naming.
Johnson, C. J., Paivio, A., & Clark, J. M. (1996) · Psychological bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.120.1.113 · Cited by 312
Are parents' gender schemas related to their children's gender-related cognitions? A meta-analysis.
Tenenbaum, H. R., & Leaper, C. (2002) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037//0012-1649.38.4.615 · Cited by 209
The Role of Speed of Processing, Rapid Naming, and Phonological Awareness in Reading Achievement
Catts, H. W., Gillispie, M., Leonard, L. B., Kail, R. V., & Miller, C. (2002) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/00222194020350060301 · Cited by 329
“Outliers were also removed, as is common practice for RT studies (e.g., J. S. Bowers, Vigliocco, Stadthagen-Gonzalez, & Vinson, 1999; Kail, 1991).”
MethodSelf-citationProcessing speed, naming speed, and reading.
Kail, R., & Hall, L. K. (1994) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.30.6.949 · Cited by 300
Self-citationThe Relation of Aerobic Fitness to Stroop Task Performance in Preadolescent Children
BUCK, S. M., HILLMAN, C. H., & CASTELLI, D. M. (2008) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0b013e318159b035 · Cited by 287
Edwards, J. R., & Lahey, M. (1998) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716400010079 · Cited by 285
The adaptive nature of cognitive immaturity.
Bjorklund, D. F., & Green, B. L. (1992) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.47.1.46 · Cited by 268
Bull, R., & Johnston, R. S. (1997) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1006/jecp.1996.2358 · Cited by 381
“…measure processing speed are consistently found to be related to performance of other cognitive skills, and to measures of higher-order cognitive processes, for example, short-term memory (Hale, 1990; Kail, 1991; Kail & Hall, 1994; Kail & Park, 1994; Kail & Salthouse, 1994; Rabbitt & Goward, 1994).”
BackgroundMotor and cognitive control in a normative sample of 7‐year‐olds
Roebers, C. M., & Kauer, M. (2008) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00755.x · Cited by 276
“Of all the tasks included in our study, the Pegboard task stressed speed most strongly and therefore appeared a suitable candidate for controlling for speed, especially given that it has been used to measure information processing speed in other studies (e.g. Kail, 1991).”
MethodInfluentialI. NIH TOOLBOX COGNITION BATTERY (CB): INTRODUCTION AND PEDIATRIC DATA
Weintraub, S., Bauer, P. J., Zelazo, P. D., Wallner-Allen, K., Dikmen, S. S., Heaton, R. K., Tulsky, D. S., Slotkin, J., Blitz, D. L., Carlozzi, N. E., et al. (2013) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.1111/mono.12031 · Cited by 248
“…speed (PS), which refers to the speed with which simple cognitive operations can be performed, was included in the CB because it is very sensitive to any form of cerebral insult (see DeLuca & Kalmar, 2007; Weiler, Forbes, Kirkwood, & Waber, 2003) and to changes in development (e.g., Kail, 1991).”
The role of domain-general cognitive control in language comprehension
Fedorenko, E. G. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00335 · Cited by 246
“…abilities are different: our cognitive control abilities are slow-developing in childhood, not reaching full maturity until early adulthood (e.g., Kail, 1991a,b,c; Kail and Salthouse, 1994; Harnishfeger and Pope, 1996; Fischer et al., 1997; Munoz et al., 1998; Diamond, 2002; Luciana and Nelson,…”
BackgroundJohnstone, S. J., Dimoska, A., Smith, J. L., Barry, R. J., Pleffer, C. B., Chiswick, D., & Clarke, A. R. (2006) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2006.07.001 · Cited by 220
A cognitive complexity metric applied to cognitive development
Andrews, G., & Halford, G. S. (2002) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0010-0285(02)00002-6 · Cited by 170
Canfield, R. L., Smith, E. G., Brezsnyak, M. P., Snow, K. L., Aslin, R. Ν., Haith, M. M., Wass, T. S., & Adler, S. A. (1997) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.2307/1166196 · Cited by 180
Developmental Features of Rapid Aiming Arm Movements Across the Lifespan
Yan, J. H., Thomas, J. R., Stelmach, G. E., & Thomas, K. T. (2000) · Journal of Motor Behavior · doi:10.1080/00222890009601365 · Cited by 159
“Those RT results are also consistent with previous findings about the effects of age on cognitive processing speed (Jacewicz & Hartley, 1987; Kail, 1991; Spirduso, 1980; Thomas, 1980).”
BackgroundResultKohnert, K. J., & Bates, E. A. (2002) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2002/027 · Cited by 155
Why Do Children With Specific Language Impairment Name Pictures More Slowly Than Their Peers?
Lahey, M., & Edwards, J. (1996) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/jshr.3905.1081 · Cited by 159
Emerging Themes in Cognitive Development
Howe, M. L., & Pasnak, R. (1993) · Springer: New York · doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-9220-0 · Cited by 170
Development of Inhibitory Processing During the Go/NoGo Task
Johnstone, S. J., Pleffer, C. B., Barry, R. J., Clarke, A. R., & Smith, J. L. (2005) · Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1027/0269-8803.19.1.11 · Cited by 160
“These results are in line with the well-documented decrease in response execution timing with age (Cerella & Hale, 1994; Kail, 1991).”
ResultProcessing speed, speech rate, and memory.
Kail, R. (1992) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.28.5.899 · Cited by 160
Self-citationNydén, A., Gillberg, C., Hjelmquist, E., & Heiman, M. (1999) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361399003003002 · Cited by 151
“According to several authors (Dempster, 1985; Kail, 1991;Torgesen, 1994) longer reaction times result in poorer information-processing capacity.”
BackgroundDo preschoolers remember what to do? Incentive and external cues in prospective memory
Guajardo, N. R., & Best, D. L. (2000) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/s0885-2014(00)00016-2 · Cited by 138
Effects of prenatal PCB exposure on cognitive processing efficiency and sustained attention.
Jacobson, J. L., Jacobson, S., Padgett, R. J., Brumitt, G. A., & Billings, R. L. (1992) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.28.2.297 · Cited by 150
Relation of prenatal alcohol exposure to cognitive processing speed and efficiency in childhood.
Burden, M. J., Jacobson, S., & Jacobson, J. L. (2005) · Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1097/01.alc.0000175036.34076.a0 · Cited by 144
McAuley, T., & White, D. A. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2010.08.009 · Cited by 199
“…consistent with previous work showing that processing speed, response inhibition, and working memory have a protracted course of development (e.g., Kail, 1991; Jerger, Pearson, & Spence, 1999; Luna, Garver, Urban, Lazar, & Sweeny, 2004 ; Williams et al; 1999; Wright, Waterman, Prescott, &…”
ResultSpeed of processing, anticipation, inhibition and working memory in bilinguals
Bonifacci, P., Giombini, L., Bellocchi, S., & Contento, S. G. (2010) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.00974.x · Cited by 132
“These data support the literature on the development of speed of processing, inhibition and working memory which are thought to improve until late adolescence (Kail, 1991; Luna, Garver, Urban, Lazar & Sweeney, 2004).”
ResultDevelopmental changes in inhibitory processing: evidence from psychophysiological measures
van der Molen, M. W. (2000) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0301-0511(00)00057-0 · Cited by 95
The Educational Relevance of Research in Cognitive Neuroscience
Byrnes, J. P., & Fox, N. A. (1998) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1023/a:1022145812276 · Cited by 115
“There are reliable individual and developmental differences in the speed with which subjects can make simple and complex responses (Jensen, 1987; Frearson and Eysenck, 1986; Kail, 1991).”
BackgroundInhibitory control in childhood stuttering
Eggers, K., Nil, L. F. D., & den Bergh, B. R. H. V. (2012) · Journal of Fluency Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jfludis.2012.10.001 · Cited by 135
Reality Compared With Its Alternatives: Age Differences in Judgments of Regret and Relief.
Guttentag, R. E., & Ferrell, J. M. (2004) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.5.764 · Cited by 102
“…be disseminated broadly. mine the extent to which age differences in information-processing capacity or efficiency (Case, Kurland, & Goldberg, 1982; Kail, 1991; Kail & Bisanz, 1992) may help explain the shift from age 5 to age 7 found here with respect to the understanding of regret or whether…”
BackgroundDevelopmental and Cognitive Characteristics of “High-Level Potentialities” (Highly Gifted) Children
Vaivre‐Douret, L. (2011) · International Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1155/2011/420297 · Cited by 165
Montgomery, J. W., & Windsor, J. (2007) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2007/054 · Cited by 106
Phonological priming in children's picture naming
Brooks, P. J., & MacWhinney, B. (2000) · Journal of Child Language · doi:10.1017/s0305000900004141 · Cited by 114
Michel, E., Röthlisberger, M., Neuenschwander, R., & Roebers, C. M. (2011) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2010.525501 · Cited by 97
“As a measure of basic information-processing time , we used a simple computerized reaction time task, adapted from Kail (1991 ).”
MethodCognitive flexibility in young children: General or task-specific capacity?
Deák, G. O., & Wiseheart, M. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2015.04.003 · Cited by 153
“Finally, processing speed is a task-general individual difference that modulates cognitive control (Kail, 1991; Kail & Hall, 1994); here we considered it an EF parameter.”
BackgroundNIH Toolbox Cognitive Battery (NIHTB-CB): The NIHTB Pattern Comparison Processing Speed Test
Carlozzi, N. E., Tulsky, D. S., Chiaravalloti, N. D., Beaumont, J. L., Weintraub, S., Conway, K., & Gershon, R. C. (2014) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617714000319 · Cited by 107
“Thus, processing speed is shortened systematically through childhood and adolescence (Hale, 1990; Kail, 1991), peaks in young adulthood and slows modestly during middle age (Cerella & Hale, 1994; Chaytor & Schmitter-Edgecombe, 2004), and more substantially in adults over age 65 (Finkel et al.”
BackgroundAuditory lexical decisions of children with specific language impairment.
Edwards, J. R., & Lahey, M. (1996) · Journal of Speech and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/jshr.3906.1263 · Cited by 104
Role of Working Memory in Typically Developing Children’s Complex Sentence Comprehension
Montgomery, J. W., Magimairaj, B. M., & O'Malley, M. H. (2008) · Journal of Psycholinguistic Research · doi:10.1007/s10936-008-9077-z · Cited by 91
Bonifacci, P., & Snowling, M. J. (2008) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2007.12.006 · Cited by 105
Lexical and phonological organization in children: evidence from repetition tasks.
Munson, B., Swenson, C., & Manthei, S. C. (2005) · Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2005/009 · Cited by 101
Beyond naïve cue combination: salience and social cues in early word learning
Yurovsky, D., & Frank, M. C. (2015) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12349 · Cited by 133
“Early childhood is a time of substantial development in attention and inhibition (Smith, Thelen, Titzer, & McLin, 1999; Diamond & Doar, 1989), memory (Cowan, 1997), and speed of processing (Kail, 1991; Dougherty & Haith, 1997).”
BackgroundThe Ability to Activate and Inhibit Speeded Responses: Separate Developmental Trends
Band, G. P. H., van der Molen, M. W., Overtoom, C. C. E., & Verbaten, M. N. (2000) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1006/jecp.1999.2538 · Cited by 84
Trends in adolescent research for the new millennium
Galambos, N., & Leadbeater, B. (2000) · doi:10.1080/01650250050118268 · Cited by 82
“These studies have demonstrated that by 14 years of age, adolescents are nearly as ef cient as adults in speed of cognitive processing (Kail, 1991) and engage in effective time-monitoring strategies (Ceci & Bronfenbrenner, 1985).”
BackgroundResponse Time in 14-Year-Olds With Language Impairment
Miller, C., Leonard, L. B., Kail, R. V., Zhang, X., Tomblin, J. B., & Francis, D. J. (2006) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2006/052 · Cited by 75
Self-citationRöthlisberger, M., Neuenschwander, R., Michel, E., & Roebers, C. M. (2010) · Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie · doi:10.1026/0049-8637/a000010 · Cited by 69
Capacity, strategies, and metamemory: tests of a three-factor model of memory development.
DeMarie, D., & Ferron, J. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0022-0965(03)00004-3 · Cited by 78
Three- and four-year-olds’ perceptual confusions for spoken words
Gerken, L., Murphy, W. D., & Aslin, R. (1995) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03213073 · Cited by 78
VI. NIH toolbox cognition battery (CB): measuring processing speed
Carlozzi, N. E., Tulsky, D. S., Kail, R. V., & Beaumont, J. L. (2013) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.1111/mono.12036 · Cited by 76
“In fact, processing speeds in different domains increase at a common rate (Kail, 1986, 1988, 1991), supporting the notion of a global mechanism.”
InfluentialSelf-citationThe Pervasive Role of Pragmatics in Early Language
Bohn, M., & Frank, M. C. (2019) · Annual Review of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.31234/osf.io/v8e56 · Cited by 70
Online measures of basic language skills in children with early focal brain lesions.
MacWhinney, B., Feldman, H., Sacco, K. A., & Valdés-Pérez, R. (2000) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1006/brln.1999.2273 · Cited by 66
“Kail (1988; 1991; 1992) has shown that reaction-time speed increases throughout childhood.”
BackgroundResultPicture Naming in Early Sequential Bilinguals
Kohnert, K. J. (2002) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2002/061 · Cited by 56
Droit‐Volet, S. (2009) · The European Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/09541440902738900 · Cited by 79
“There is now ample evidence that the time taken to generate a motor action, assessed by means of a simple reaction time (RT), is longer and more variable in younger children (e.g., Cowan et al., 2005; Kail, 1991; Pickering, 2001; Riggs, McTaggart, Simpson, & Freeman, 2006).”
BackgroundThe Development of Memory and Processing Capacity
Halford, G. S., Maybery, M. T., O'Hare, A. W., & Grant, P. (1994) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1994.tb00820.x · Cited by 63
Montgomery, J. W. (2005) · International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders · doi:10.1080/13682820400011069 · Cited by 58
Yan, J. H., & Thomas, J. R. (2002) · Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport · doi:10.1080/02701367.2002.10608987 · Cited by 62
Developmental change in the cross-modal Stroop effect
Hanauer, J. B., & Brooks, P. J. (2003) · Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/bf03194567 · Cited by 52
“However, because of developmentaldifferences in processing speed ( Kail, 1991, 1992 ), for the 2500-msec condition, we lengthened the interval between presentation of the distractor and the color patch to provide children with sufficient time to fully process the word prior to seeing the patch.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMeaning resolution processes for words: A parallel independent model
Twilley, L. C., & Dixon, P. (2000) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03210725 · Cited by 62
Montgomery, J. W. (2008) · International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders · doi:10.1080/13682820701736638 · Cited by 54
Daum, M. M., & Gredebäck, G. (2010) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-010-2479-9 · Cited by 55
Das Arbeitsgedächtnis von 4- bis 5-jährigen Kindern
Schmid, C. W., Zoelch, C., & Roebers, C. M. (2008) · Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und Pädagogische Psychologie · doi:10.1026/0049-8637.40.1.2 · Cited by 54
Vaivre‐Douret, L. (2004) · Neuropsychiatrie de l Enfance et de l Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.neurenf.2004.01.006 · Cited by 66
Role of working memory in children's understanding spoken narrative: A preliminary investigation
Montgomery, J. W., POLUNENKO, A., & Marinellie, S. A. (2009) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716409090249 · Cited by 51
Performance on nonlinguistic visual tasks by children with language impairment
Windsor, J., Kohnert, K. J., LOXTERCAMP, A. L., & Kan, P. F. (2008) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716407080113 · Cited by 52
“Nonlinguistic RT appears to decrease at an exponential rate during childhood and adolescence for typically developing monolingual children (Kail, 1991b, 1993).”
BackgroundClark, C. A. C., Nelson, J. M., Garza, J. P., Sheffield, T. D., Wiebe, S. A., & Espy, K. A. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00107 · Cited by 74
“More specific to EC, measures of processing speed have been shown to fully mediate the relation of age to inhibitory control task performance (Kail, 2002; McAuley and White, 2011) and to partially mediate the relation of age to working memory in middle childhood (Fry and Hale, 2000; McAuley and…”
BackgroundReal‐time language processing in school‐age children with specific language impairment
Montgomery, J. W. (2006) · International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders · doi:10.1080/13682820500227987 · Cited by 50
Picture Naming and Verbal Fluency in Children With Cochlear Implants
Wechsler-Kashi, D., Schwartz, R. G., & Cleary, M. (2014) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2014_jslhr-l-13-0321 · Cited by 89
Bauer, P. J., & Zelazo, P. D. (2014) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/cdep.12080 · Cited by 53
Memory Development in Childhood
Schneider, W. (2002) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470996652.ch11 · Cited by 53
The Effect of Presentation Rate on Serial Memory in Young Children With Specific Language Impairment
Fazio, B. B. (1998) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/jslhr.4106.1375 · Cited by 40
Stewart, C. R., Sanchez, S. S., Grenesko, E. L., Brown, C. M., Chen, C. P., Keehn, B., Velasquez, F., Lincoln, A. J., & Müller, R.-A. (2016) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2367-z · Cited by 46
“The results for the TD group are consistent with findings of age-dependent decreases in RTs for simple tasks in childhood and adolescence (Kail 1991).”
ResultElementary Reading Instruction
Pressley, M. G., Wharton‐McDonald, R., Rankin, J. L., El‐Dinary, P. B., BROWN, R. M. A., Afflerbach, P. P., Mistretta, J., & Yokoi, L. (1997) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012554255-5/50007-7 · Cited by 9
Global processing speed as a mediator of developmental changes in children’s auditory memory span
Ferguson, A. N., & Bowey, J. A. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2004.12.006 · Cited by 42
Research on memory development: Historical trends and current themes
Schneider, W. (2000) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1080/016502500750037955 · Cited by 48
“Age differences in speed of processing in uence a wide range of tasks and may represent a cognitive primitive (see Kail, 1991, 1993; Kail & Salthouse, 1994).”
BackgroundMontgomery, J., & Leonard, L. (2006) · Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2006/089 · Cited by 44
Relational complexity metric is effective when assessments are based on actual cognitive processes
Halford, G., Wilson, W., & Phillips, S. (1998) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x98401766 · Cited by 44
Cassidy, A. R., White, M. T., DeMaso, D. R., Newburger, J. W., & Bellinger, D. C. (2016) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000289 · Cited by 54
“…br oa dl y. speed of processing over infancy, childhood, and adolescence (Rose et al., 2012b) with a peak in young adulthood and subsequent decline with aging (Kail, 1991), in accordance with patterns of white matter development and organization (Ferrer et al., 2013; Soria-Pastor et al., 2008).”
Understanding Developmental Systems in Adolescence
Lerner, R. M., Lerner, J. V., Stefanis, I. D., & Apfel, A. (2001) · Journal of Adolescent Research · doi:10.1177/0743558401161003 · Cited by 62
“Rather, cognitive abilities are enhanced in early adolescence as individuals become faster and more efficient at processing information—at least in settings in which they feel comfortable in performing cognitive tasks (Ceci & Bronfenbrenner, 1985; Kail, 1991).”
BackgroundCausey, K., & Bjorklund, D. F. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2014.01.020 · Cited by 37
The Adolescent Perspective on Participation in Treatment Decision Making: A Pilot Study
Stegenga, K., & Ward-Smith, P. (2008) · Journal of Pediatric Oncology Nursing · doi:10.1177/1043454208314515 · Cited by 39
“This finding is further supported by research conducted by Kail (1991), who focused on the development of cognitive ability and concluded that adolescents develop cognitive processing abilities similar to those of adults by 14 years of age.”
ResultThe effect of fine motor skills, handwriting, and typing on reading development
Suggate, S. P., Karle, V. L., Kipfelsberger, T., & Stoeger, H. (2023) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2023.105674 · Cited by 67
Probabilistic cue combination: less is more
Yurovsky, D., Boyer, T. W., Smith, L. B., & Yu, C. (2012) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.12011 · Cited by 36
“Although development is generally accompanied by increased efficiency (Kail, 1991), sometimes this efficiency comes at a cost.”
BackgroundMeristo, M., & Hjelmquist, E. (2009) · Journal of Cognition and Development · doi:10.1080/15248370902966552 · Cited by 35
“Reaction time has by some authors been said to be one of the purest measures of attention since it is confounded only by motor speed (Kail, 1991 ; Nyden, Gillberg, Hjelmquist, & Heiman, 1999 ).”
BackgroundThe Role of a Global Mechanism in Developmental Change in Speed of Processing
Kail, R. (1993) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-9220-0_4 · Cited by 34
Self-citationDoyle, C., Smeaton, A. F., Roche, R. A. P., & Boran, L. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00795 · Cited by 42
“Similar to executive function, processing speed efficiency increases from childhood into adulthood and reduced efficiency is observed in later adulthood (Kail, 1991; Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundEffect of response context and masker type on word recognition in school-age children and adults.
Buss, E., Leibold, L., & Hall, J. (2016) · Journal of the Acoustical Society of America · doi:10.1121/1.4960587 · Cited by 33
“…memory or working memory (Hulme et al., 1984; Keller and Cowan, 1994), slower word retrieval of pictorial response alternatives (Winters and Brzoska, 1975; Kail, 1991; Cook and Meyer, 2008), and limited cognitive resources to support the comparison between stimulus memory and response alternatives.”
BackgroundHanauer, J. B., & Brooks, P. J. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2004.08.002 · Cited by 31
“Because children process information more slowly than do adults (Kail, 1991, 1992), Hanauer and Brooks (2003) adjusted the timing of the 500-ms condition so that the color patch occurred 500 ms after the offset of the auditory distractor.”
BackgroundDigit Span Changes From Puberty to Old Age Under Different Levels of Education
Karakaş, S., Yalin, A., Irak, M., & Erzengin, Ö. U. (2002) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1207/s15326942dn2202_1 · Cited by 34
“However, this relationship has been ascribed to the role of a general speed factor that influences rehearsal; the speed factor is responsible for the variations in both intelligence and span (Kail, 1991).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Kail, R.
- Affiliations
- Purdue University West Lafayette (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kail, Robert
- Venue
- Developmental Psychology
- Published
- 1991-03
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 259-266
- ISSN
- 0012-1649 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-0599
- OpenAlex
- W2040324172
- Cited by
- 168
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 3 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 2 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 2.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Developmental Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Keywords
- processing speed, cognitive development, childhood, adolescence, exponential decline, cognitive aging, reaction time
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