Cited by 739Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesNeural and Behavioral Psychology StudiesPsychological Treatments and Assessments

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Induced emotional interpretation bias and anxiety.

Mathews, Andrew, Mackintosh, Bundy·2000·Journal of Abnormal Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0021-843x.109.4.602

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Abstract

Five experiments are reported showing that the interpretation of personally relevant emotional information can be modified by systematic exposure to congruent exemplars. Participants were induced to interpret ambiguous information in a relatively threatening or a benign way. Comparison with a baseline condition suggested that negative and positive induction had similar but opposing effects. Induction of an interpretative bias did not require active generation of personally relevant meanings, but such active processing was necessary before state anxiety changed in parallel with the induced interpretative bias. These findings provide evidence consistent with a causal link between the deployment of interpretative bias and anxiety and reveal something of the processes underlying this association.

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BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citation
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“Introduction Method Participants Measures Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale (FNE, Watson & Friend, 1969): Social Avoidance and Distress Scale (SADs, Watson & Friend, 1969): Beck’s Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II, Beck, Steer, & Brown, 1996): Recognition test Interventions Cognitive Bias Modification to Induce Positive…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citation
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Background
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Background
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Method
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Background
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Method
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Method
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Method
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Method
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Influential
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Background
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Background
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BackgroundMethod
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Background
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“Recognition task [28] assessed interpretation bias (IB).”
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BackgroundInfluential
An attention and interpretation bias for illness-specific information in chronic fatigue syndrome
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Background
Cognitive Bias Modification to Enhance Resilience to a Panic Challenge
Beadel, J. R., Mathews, A., & Teachman, B. A. (2016) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-016-9791-z · Cited by 16
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MethodSelf-citation
Threat and benign interpretation bias might not be a unidimensional construct
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“For the Recognition Ratings measure (modified from Mathews & Mackintosh, 2000), participants were asked to read and imagine themselves in nine ambiguous scenarios.”
Method
Attentional Processing and Interpretative Bias in Functional Neurological Disorder
Keynejad, R. C., Fenby, E., Pick, S., Moss-Morris, R. E., Hirsch, C. R., Chalder, T., Hughes, A. M., & Nicholson, T. R. (2020) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0000000000000821 · Cited by 16
Looking on the bright side in social anxiety: the potential benefit of promoting positive mental imagery
Pictet, A. (2014) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00043 · Cited by 14
“HUMAN NEUROSCIENCE PERSPECTIVE ARTICLE published: 04 February 2014 doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00043 Looking on the bright side in social anxiety: the potential benefit of promoting positive mental imagery”
Influential
Interpretation bias and its relationship with pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Todd, J., Pickup, B., Coutts‐Bain, D., Duijzings, M., & Sharpe, L. (2025) · Pain · doi:10.1097/j.pain.0000000000003612 · Cited by 15
Reasoning and interpretation cognitive biases related to psychotic characteristics: An umbrella-review
Samson, C., Livet, A., Gilker, A., Potvin, S., Sicard, V., & Lecomte, T. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0314965 · Cited by 18
Susceptibility and resilience to cyber threat: Findings from a scenario decision program to measure secure and insecure computing behavior
Weems, C. F., Ahmed, I., Richard, G. G., Russell, J. D., & Neill, E. L. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0207408 · Cited by 15
Cognitive bias modification for interpretation training via smartphones for social anxiety in Chinese undergraduates
Sun, X., Yang, R., Zhang, Q., Xiao, J., Li, C., & Cui, L. (2019) · Journal of Experimental Psychopathology · doi:10.1177/2043808719875274 · Cited by 16
“For instance, individuals who received CBM-I had been found to endorse more adaptive interpretations of novel social stimuli (Mathews & Mackintosh, 2000; Salemink, van den Hout, & Kindt, 2010a, 2010b) and a significant reduction in social anxiety symptoms (Amir & Taylor, 2012; Beard & Amir, 2008).”
Background
Inducing positive involuntary mental imagery in everyday life: an experimental investigation
Blackwell, S. E., Dooley, D., Würtz, F., Woud, M. L., & Margraf, J. (2020) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2020.1822413 · Cited by 15
Effectiveness of an online interpretation training as a pre-treatment for cognitive behavioral therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder in youth: A randomized controlled trial
Wolters, L. H., Hagen, A., de Beek, V. O., Dol, P., de Haan, E., & Salemink, E. (2021) · Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jocrd.2021.100636 · Cited by 16
Emotional processing in obsessive–compulsive disorder
Casado, Y., Cobos, P., Godoy, A., Machado‐Pinheiro, W., & Vila, J. (2011) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2011.07.003 · Cited by 15
“Cognitive theories of anxiety disorders have suggested that one of the most important factors underlying this kind of disorder is a deficit in information processing (Beck, Emery & Greenberg, 1985; Eysenck, 1992; Mathews & Mackintosh, 2000; Mogg & Bradley, 1998).”
Background
Sequential Growth in Cognitive-behavioral Emotion-processing: A Laboratory Study
Guastella, A. J., & Dadds, M. R. (2008) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-008-9199-5 · Cited by 15
“Experimental studies have been successful in demonstrating the therapeutic benefits of single emotion-processes, such as exposure (Rowe and Craske 1998) and cognitive re-appraisals ( Mathews and Mackintosh 2000 ).”
How trait anxiety, interpretation bias and memory affect acquired fear in children learning about new animals.
Field, Z., & Field, A. P. (2013) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0031147 · Cited by 17
Can Cognitive Bias Modification of Interpretations Training Alter Mood States in Children and Adolescents? A Reanalysis of Data From Six Studies
Lau, J. Y. F., & Pile, V. (2014) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702614549596 · Cited by 19
Maximizing potential impact of experimental research into cognitive processes in health psychology: A systematic approach to material development
Hughes, A. M., Gordon, R., Chalder, T., Hirsch, C. R., & Moss-Morris, R. E. (2016) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjhp.12214 · Cited by 15
Cognitive bias modification as a strategy to reduce children's fears and concerns about the secondary school transition
Cox, P., Bamford, G. M., & Lau, J. Y. F. (2016) · Anxiety, Stress, & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2015.1058367 · Cited by 14
“CBM-I draws on cognitive models that suggest that negative interpretation biases – the tendency to draw negative interpretations of ambiguous situations – characterize, precede, and maintain anxious mood (Beck, Emery, & Greenberg, 1985; Mathews & Mackintosh, 2000).”
BackgroundInfluential
Negative Interpretation Biases Precede the Onset of Psychosis
Yiend, J., Allen, P., Lopez, N. D., Falkenberg, I., Tseng, H.-H., & McGuire, P. (2019) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2018.11.002 · Cited by 14
“This is a common finding within the cognitive bias literature, and is usually taken to reflect the existence of a continuum between adaptive (unrealistically positive) and maladaptive (overtly negative) processing (Hirsch and Mathews, 2000; Eysenck et al., 1991).”
Background
Single-Session Cognitive Bias Modification of Interpretations Training in High-Anxious Adolescents
Fu, X., Du, Y., Au, S., & Lau, J. Y. F. (2015) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/0889-8391.29.3.253 · Cited by 17
“Prior to completion of the IST, a 10-min picture filler task was administered to remove possible group differences in mood that might arise from training, thus, avoiding confounding any training-related effects on interpretative style (Mathews & Mackintosh, 2000).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Anxiety Disorders: A Developmental Vulnerability-Stress Perspective
Williams, N. L., Reardon, J. M., Murray, K. T., & Cole, T. M. (2005) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781452231655.n11 · Cited by 14
Cognitive bias modification for interpretation with and without prior repetitive negative thinking to reduce worry and rumination in generalised anxiety disorder and depression: protocol for a multisession experimental study with an active control condition
Krahé, C., Mathews, A., Whyte, J., & Hirsch, C. R. (2016) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2016-013404 · Cited by 13
“Previous research has shown that negative trials do not interfere with learning and may be helpful by providing an intermittent reinforcement contingency.(16) 45 Following each scenario, participants respond to a Yes/No question related to the content of the scenario.”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Which Variations of a Brief Cognitive Bias Modification Session for Interpretations Lead to the Strongest Effects?
Steinman, S. A., Namaky, N., Toton, S. L., Meissel, E. E. E., John, A. T. S., Pham, N.-H., Werntz, A. J., Valladares, T. L., Gorlin, E. I., Arbus, S., et al. (2020) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-020-10168-3 · Cited by 14
“Participants were asked to read and imagine themselves in 70 scenarios (modified from Mathews and Mackintosh 2000).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Like parent, like child: Is parent interpretation bias associated with their child's interpretation bias and anxiety? A systematic review and meta-analysis
Subar, A. R., & Rozenman, M. S. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2021.05.020 · Cited by 18
Age Differences in Interpretation Bias in Community and Comorbid Depressed and Anxious Samples
Tadić, D., Wuthrich, V. M., & Rapee, R. M. (2015) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-015-9676-6 · Cited by 14
“Empirical evidence shows that while non-anxious individuals tend to favour positive or benign inferences about ambiguity, anxious individuals favour threatening inferences (Hirsch and Mathews 2000; MacLeod and Cohen 1993; Mathews and Mackintosh 2000).”
Background
Worry and Generalized Anxiety Disorder: A Review
Newman, M. G., Cho, S.-I. T., & Kim, H. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.05108-7 · Cited by 14
“Such interpretive bias can be induced in non-anxious participants via repeated accessing of negative outcomes related to emotionally ambiguous information (Hirsch et al., 2007; Mathews and Mackintosh, 2000; Wilson et al., 2006).”
Background
Reducing alcohol-related interpretive bias in negative affect situations: Using a scenario-based Cognitive Bias Modification training paradigm
Salemink, E., Woud, M. L., Roos, M., Wiers, R. W. H. J., & Lindgren, K. P. (2018) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.07.023 · Cited by 19
“After pressing the space bar, this word was presented as a word fragment to create active involvement (Mathews & Mackintosh, 2000).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Trauma processing and the development of posttraumatic stress disorder
Kindt, M., & Engelhard, I. M. (2005) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2004.11.007 · Cited by 15
“Only recently, studies appear to show evidence for a causal relation of processing bias and anxiety, by inducing attentional or interpretation bias for threat in normal controls (e.g. MacLeod, Rutherford, Campbell, Ebsworthy, & Holker, 2002; Mathews & Mackintosh, 2000).”
Background
Imagery versus verbal interpretive cognitive bias modification for compulsive checking
Black, M. J., & Grisham, J. R. (2016) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2016.05.009 · Cited by 13
Predictors of Symptom Outcome in Interpretation Bias Modification for Dysphoria
Smith, H. L., McDermott, K. A., Carlton, C. N., & Cougle, J. R. (2018) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2018.10.001 · Cited by 13
Online Cognitive Bias Modification for Interpretation to Reduce Anxious Thinking During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Larrazabal, M. A., Eberle, J. W., Evia, Á. F. V. D. L. G., Boukhechba, M., Funk, D. H., Barnes, L. E., Boker, S. M., & Teachman, B. A. (2023) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2023.104463 · Cited by 13
Cognitive Bias Modification: A New Frontier in Cognition and Emotion Research
MacLeod, C., & Clarke, P. (2013) · UWA Profiles and Research Repository (UWA) · Cited by 13
Modifying interpretation biases: Effects on symptomatology, behavior, and physiological reactivity in social anxiety.
Nowakowski, M. E., Antony, M., & Koerner, N. (2015) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2015.04.004 · Cited by 16
Bilingual comparison of Mandarin and English cognitive bias tasks
Smith, L., Leung, W. G., Crane, B., Parkinson, B., Toulopoulou, T., & Yiend, J. (2017) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-017-0871-0 · Cited by 15
“…emotionally threatening stimulus over other stimuli types (e.g., neutral stimuli; MacLeod et al., 1986), whereas interpretation bias occurs when ambiguous stimuli are consistently interpreted as being negative in content (Amir, Foa, & Coles, 1998; Eysenck et al., 1991; Mathews & Mackintosh, 2000).”
Background
A pilot study of interpretive cognitive bias modification for OCD
Black, M., & Grisham, J. R. (2018) · Journal of Experimental Psychopathology · doi:10.1177/2043808718778969 · Cited by 14
“Given the relevance of intrusive imagery to OCD (Rachman, 2007), we utilized an imagery induction prior to CBM-I to potentially bolster the effect of the training (as in Holmes et al., 2009; Mathews & Mackintosh, 2000).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Emotional Reasoning and Parent-Based Reasoning in Non-Clinical Children, and Their Prospective Relationships with Anxiety Symptoms
Morren, M., Muris, P., Kindt, M., Schouten, E. G. W., & van den Hout, M. (2008) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-007-0091-4 · Cited by 14
“This increased sense of threat would in turn maintain or intensify the anxiety response, and so on [24, 25].”
Background

Authors: Mathews, A., & Mackintosh, B.
Affiliations: MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit (GB)
ORCID: Mackintosh, Bundy
Venue: Journal of Abnormal Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2000-11
Volume: 109
Issue: 4
Pages: 602-615
ISSN: 0021-843X (ISSN-L)
1939-1846
DOI: 10.1037/0021-843x.109.4.602
OpenAlex: W2029885631
Cited by: 739
References: 31
Citations by year: 2026: 20 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 36 · 2023: 39 · 2022: 31 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 29 · 2018: 38 · 2017: 33 · 2016: 39 · 2015: 50 · 2014: 49 · 2013: 42 · 2012: 31
FWCI: 5.41
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Abnormal Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychological Treatments and Assessments
Keywords: state anxiety, cognitive appraisal
MeSH terms: Anxiety, Attention, Emotions, Humans, Reaction Time, Mental Recall, Set, Psychology, Social Perception

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Induced emotional interpretation bias and anxiety.

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