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The Hawthorne effect: A reconsideration of the methodological artifact.

Adair, John G.·1984·Journal of Applied Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0021-9010.69.2.334

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Abstract

Reviews the literature on the Hawthorne effect (HE) which originated out of the studies at the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company. This effect is generally defined as the problem in field experiments that Ss' knowledge that they are in an experiment modifies their behavior from what it would have been without the knowledge. An examination of the Hawthorne studies conducted 50 yrs ago does not reveal this “effect” probably because there were so many uncontrolled variables. HE is inconsistently described in contemporary psychology textbooks, and there is lack of agreement on how the effect is mediated. Controls for the HE in current field research (mostly in education) took several forms, each designed for different purposes. In 13 studies designed to produce HEs, only 4 using adult Ss were successful. It is suggested that most persons in any clearly identified situation define the context for their behavior and respond accordingly; the necessity to ascertain Ss' view of the experiment requires different procedures than those typically used to control for HEs in the past. It is concluded that better articulation of how to adapt postexperimental questioning procedures to a diversity of experimental settings is needed. (68 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved)

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Goldman, B. A., & Kelley, M. R. (2009) · Psi Chi Journal of Psychological Research · doi:10.24839/1089-4136.jn14.2.72 · Cited by 4
The Internal Validity of Research
Kite, M. E., & Whitley, B. E. (2018) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315450087-7 · Cited by 4
First things first: What is a base rate?
McCauley, C. R. (1996) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00041352 · Cited by 4
Studying the use of base rates: Normal science or shifting paradigm?
Krueger, J. I. (1996) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00041315 · Cited by 4
Mass administration of azithromycin to infants does not promote their survival in MaliPreprint
Haidara, F. C., Adubra, L., Abdou, M., Alber, D., Ashorn, U., Cheung, Y. B., Cloutman-Green, E., Diallo, M., Ducker, C., Fan, Y., et al. (2025) · doi:10.12688/verixiv.978.1 · Cited by 4
Concept Mapping as a Tool for Enhancing Self-Paced Learning in a Distance Scenario
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“The systematic approach outlined in this paper serves as a guide for future studies aimed at refining RL-based methodologies for collecting and applying human feedback.”
Evaluating the impact of video cameras on participant behaviour in research: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Herath, M. B., Kulas, S., Martin, J., Treloar, E., Ey, J. D., Bradshaw, E. L., DeSilva-White, J., Edwards, S., Bruening, M. H., & Maddern, G. J. (2026) · Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1186/s13643-025-03055-z · Cited by 3
“Conference abstracts, scientific posters, articles describing methodology without reported participant behaviour, or studies using direct human observation without the use of a camera were excluded (Appendix 3).”
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Impact of a case-management intervention for reducing emergency attendance on primary care: randomised control trial
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“Participating patients in both arms may be susceptible to the Hawthorne effect; 26 however, this is likely to be minimal as data are remotely extracted from EHRs without direct patient involvement or observation.”
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“This could have influenced how the pharmacists and other ED staff worked during the observation periods [41].”
Background
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Grov, C., D’Angelo, A. B., Mirzayi, C. A., Dearolf, M. H., Hoeppner, E., Guo, Y., Richards, N., Ehsan, R., Kulkarni, S., Nash, D., et al. (2025) · JMIR Public Health and Surveillance · doi:10.2196/66921 · Cited by 3
“For example, McCambridge et al [71] discussed how research participant effects—an expansion on the Hawthorne effect [72]—can introduce bias, including demand characteristics [73].”
The clinical pathology laboratory in 360° virtual reality
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“Moreover, repeated subjective evaluation may lead to Hawthorne effects on the participants, where the participants would deliberately modify their responses as a result of the repeated measurement [22, 23].”
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Capturing prolonged interactive experiences
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Johal, A. (2016) · Journal of Sleep Disorders and Management · doi:10.23937/2572-4053.1510013 · Cited by 3
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Cost evaluation in adult ICU: α two-year study in a Greek State Hospital
Kosmidis, D., Koutsouki, S., Lampiri, K., Nagy, E. O., Anastassopoulos, G. C., Papaioannou, V. E., & Pnevmatikos, I. (2021) · Health & Research Journal · doi:10.12681/healthresj.26097 · Cited by 3
“agement is likely, as they have gradually shown increasing interest in reducing waste during the study period contributing significantly to the reduction of costs (Hawthorne effect).(26) These results are partly comparable with the international literature.”
Result
Student Engagement in Video Case Based Undergraduate Business Teaching
Pond, K. (2015) · International Journal of Higher Education · doi:10.5430/ijhe.v5n1p119 · Cited by 3
“It was felt to be important with relatively small class sizes to minimise “Hawthorne” type issues (Adair, 1984).”
Background
Analysis of Online Social Interactions Based on Positive Reinforcement Social Networks in a K–12 Geometry Class
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“Measures were taken to avoid the Hawthorne effect [39].”
Method
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Does the Self‐Reported Behavioural Automaticity Index provide a valid measure of toothbrushing behaviour in adults?
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Authors: Adair, J. G.
Affiliations: University of Manitoba (CA)
Corresponding author: Adair, John G.
Venue: Journal of Applied Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1984-05
Volume: 69
Issue: 2
Pages: 334-345
ISSN: 0021-9010 (ISSN-L)
1939-1854
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.69.2.334
OpenAlex: W2078241739
Cited by: 1,095
References: 39
Citations by year: 2026: 63 · 2025: 88 · 2024: 55 · 2023: 36 · 2022: 43 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 57 · 2019: 50 · 2018: 47 · 2017: 40 · 2016: 66 · 2015: 65 · 2014: 58 · 2013: 52 · 2012: 54
FWCI: 2.77
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Applied Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychology Research and Bibliometrics
Social Sciences › Psychology › General Psychology › Academic and Historical Perspectives in Psychology
Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Experimental Behavioral Economics Studies
Keywords: Hawthorne effect, methodological artifacts, field experiments, experimenter effects, Hawthorne studies, Western Electric Company, educational research

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The Hawthorne effect: A reconsideration of the methodological artifact.

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