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The Hawthorne effect: A reconsideration of the methodological artifact.

Adair, John G.·1984·Journal of Applied Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0021-9010.69.2.334

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Abstract

Reviews the literature on the Hawthorne effect (HE) which originated out of the studies at the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company. This effect is generally defined as the problem in field experiments that Ss' knowledge that they are in an experiment modifies their behavior from what it would have been without the knowledge. An examination of the Hawthorne studies conducted 50 yrs ago does not reveal this “effect” probably because there were so many uncontrolled variables. HE is inconsistently described in contemporary psychology textbooks, and there is lack of agreement on how the effect is mediated. Controls for the HE in current field research (mostly in education) took several forms, each designed for different purposes. In 13 studies designed to produce HEs, only 4 using adult Ss were successful. It is suggested that most persons in any clearly identified situation define the context for their behavior and respond accordingly; the necessity to ascertain Ss' view of the experiment requires different procedures than those typically used to control for HEs in the past. It is concluded that better articulation of how to adapt postexperimental questioning procedures to a diversity of experimental settings is needed. (68 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved)

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3D simulation technology as an effective instructional tool for enhancing spatial visualization skills in apparel design
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Does the Finnish intervention prevent obstetric anal sphincter injuries? A systematic review of the literature
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“10 14 The Hawthorne effect is known to predict an independent effect of increasing the attention to a problem.(30) Furthermore, since the Finnish intervention was not executed in a controlled way, the staff in hospitals and/or regions who had reduction of OASIS as a focus point may have combined the intervention with…”
Background
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“…the level of control through the introduction of quality control measures and the exclusion of participants who failed them, the design of this study, as for many other psychological studies, including Trupp et al., 2022, is at risk of methodological artifact (e.g., Hawthorne effect; Adair, 1984).”
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“Although it is considered the ‘‘gold standard,’’ direct observation is labor intensive and susceptible to observer biases.(5,7,8) Furthermore, the reliability of directly observed hand hygiene audits as a reflection of overall performance can be adversely affected by sporadic or inconsistent sampling.”
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“Adair (1984) extended this argument in his review of the Hawthorne effect.”
Background
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Nash, D., Stief, M. C., MacCrate, C., Mirzayi, C. A., Patel, V. V., Hoover, D. R., Pantalone, D. W., Golub, S. A., Millett, G. A., D’Angelo, A. B., et al. (2019) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/13715 · Cited by 50
“Studies involving high levels of staff contact with participants may induce behavior change by repeatedly engaging participants outside of their natural context, artificially influencing results [17,19,20] and reducing generalizability [21].”
Background
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Møller‐Hansen, M., Larsen, A., Wiencke, A. K., Terslev, L., Siersma, V., Andersen, T. T., Hansen, A. E., Brüünsgaard, H., Haack‐Sørensen, M., Ekblond, A., et al. (2023) · The Ocular Surface · doi:10.1016/j.jtos.2023.11.007 · Cited by 49
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Suhm, N., Lamy, O., & Lippuner, K. (2008) · Swiss Medical Weekly · doi:10.4414/smw.2008.12294 · Cited by 49
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“While this increases the theoretical possibility that developers change their behavior, we could never fully exclude the Hawthorne effect [10], namely that developers change their behavior because they know they are being watched.”
Background
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Hsueh, Y. (2002) · History of Psychology · doi:10.1037//1093-4510.5.2.163 · Cited by 48
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“Yet, the question of why participants change their behaviours when participating in trials and more importantly, the meaning thereof, is one of the most under-researched topics of modern social research (Adair, 1984).”
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Authors: Adair, J. G.
Affiliations: University of Manitoba (CA)
Corresponding author: Adair, John G.
Venue: Journal of Applied Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1984-05
Volume: 69
Issue: 2
Pages: 334-345
ISSN: 0021-9010 (ISSN-L)
1939-1854
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.69.2.334
OpenAlex: W2078241739
Cited by: 1,095
References: 39
Citations by year: 2026: 63 · 2025: 88 · 2024: 55 · 2023: 36 · 2022: 43 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 57 · 2019: 50 · 2018: 47 · 2017: 40 · 2016: 66 · 2015: 65 · 2014: 58 · 2013: 52 · 2012: 54
FWCI: 2.77
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Applied Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychology Research and Bibliometrics
Social Sciences › Psychology › General Psychology › Academic and Historical Perspectives in Psychology
Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Experimental Behavioral Economics Studies
Keywords: Hawthorne effect, methodological artifacts, field experiments, experimenter effects, Hawthorne studies, Western Electric Company, educational research

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The Hawthorne effect: A reconsideration of the methodological artifact.

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