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The Hawthorne effect: A reconsideration of the methodological artifact.

Adair, John G.·1984·Journal of Applied Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0021-9010.69.2.334

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Abstract

Reviews the literature on the Hawthorne effect (HE) which originated out of the studies at the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company. This effect is generally defined as the problem in field experiments that Ss' knowledge that they are in an experiment modifies their behavior from what it would have been without the knowledge. An examination of the Hawthorne studies conducted 50 yrs ago does not reveal this “effect” probably because there were so many uncontrolled variables. HE is inconsistently described in contemporary psychology textbooks, and there is lack of agreement on how the effect is mediated. Controls for the HE in current field research (mostly in education) took several forms, each designed for different purposes. In 13 studies designed to produce HEs, only 4 using adult Ss were successful. It is suggested that most persons in any clearly identified situation define the context for their behavior and respond accordingly; the necessity to ascertain Ss' view of the experiment requires different procedures than those typically used to control for HEs in the past. It is concluded that better articulation of how to adapt postexperimental questioning procedures to a diversity of experimental settings is needed. (68 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved)

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“The Hawthorne effect (Adair 1984), which is the alteration of behaviour by the subjects of a study because they are being observed, may have had an effect in this study. However, as the symptoms did position and thus her upper quadrant posture and muscle activity. Further research into the effect of providing only a f…”
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Authors: Adair, J. G.
Affiliations: University of Manitoba (CA)
Corresponding author: Adair, John G.
Venue: Journal of Applied Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1984-05
Volume: 69
Issue: 2
Pages: 334-345
ISSN: 0021-9010 (ISSN-L)
1939-1854
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.69.2.334
OpenAlex: W2078241739
Cited by: 1,095
References: 39
Citations by year: 2026: 63 · 2025: 88 · 2024: 55 · 2023: 36 · 2022: 43 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 57 · 2019: 50 · 2018: 47 · 2017: 40 · 2016: 66 · 2015: 65 · 2014: 58 · 2013: 52 · 2012: 54
FWCI: 2.77
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Applied Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychology Research and Bibliometrics
Social Sciences › Psychology › General Psychology › Academic and Historical Perspectives in Psychology
Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Experimental Behavioral Economics Studies
Keywords: Hawthorne effect, methodological artifacts, field experiments, experimenter effects, Hawthorne studies, Western Electric Company, educational research

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The Hawthorne effect: A reconsideration of the methodological artifact.

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