The DOI matches its Crossref record; 39 of the 39 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
The Hawthorne effect: A reconsideration of the methodological artifact.
Abstract
Reviews the literature on the Hawthorne effect (HE) which originated out of the studies at the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company. This effect is generally defined as the problem in field experiments that Ss' knowledge that they are in an experiment modifies their behavior from what it would have been without the knowledge. An examination of the Hawthorne studies conducted 50 yrs ago does not reveal this “effect” probably because there were so many uncontrolled variables. HE is inconsistently described in contemporary psychology textbooks, and there is lack of agreement on how the effect is mediated. Controls for the HE in current field research (mostly in education) took several forms, each designed for different purposes. In 13 studies designed to produce HEs, only 4 using adult Ss were successful. It is suggested that most persons in any clearly identified situation define the context for their behavior and respond accordingly; the necessity to ascertain Ss' view of the experiment requires different procedures than those typically used to control for HEs in the past. It is concluded that better articulation of how to adapt postexperimental questioning procedures to a diversity of experimental settings is needed. (68 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved)
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“According to the Hawthorne effect, individuals will alter their behaviors in response to being studied and usually refer to positive changes [42].”
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“First, the artificial nature of the process and the evaluator’s presence invite questions about the Hawthorne effect (Adair, 1984) and raises paradoxical questions.”
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“We checked for the Hawthorne effect when participants were examined [22].”
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BackgroundPervasive Persuasion for Stress Self-Regulation
Wang, Y., Fischer, N., & Bry, F. (2019) · IEEE International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Communications Workshops (PerCom Workshops) · doi:10.1109/percomw.2019.8730850 · Cited by 15
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“Second, it is possible that our results are due to a Hawthorne effect (Adair, 1984), where study participants change their behavior not because of the treatment but rather because they knew that investigators were paying attention to their electricity use reduction.”
ResultWettstein, R., Sedaghat‐Hamedani, F., Heinze, O., Amr, A., Reich, C., Betz, T. M., Kayvanpour, E., Merzweiler, A., Büsch, C. A., Mohr, I., et al. (2024) · JMIR mhealth and uhealth · doi:10.2196/58441 · Cited by 17
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“This kind of consistency cannot be provided by interviewees after-the- fact, as their memories and individual interpretations would necessarily be influenced by events known now but not at the time, as well as their personal history with the company (the problem also known as the “Hawthorne effect” [1]).”
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“The Hawthorne effect is defined as a problem in field trials where participants modify their behavior because of awareness of being a subject in a study, thereby affecting the study outcome (Adair, 1984; Main et al., 2012).”
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Sharma, S., Khandelwal, V., & Mishra, G. (2019) · Indian Journal of Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.5005/jp-journals-10071-23165 · Cited by 14
“Direct observation technique can have a disadvantage of observer bias, which can be due to multiple factors.(7,15-17) The study of Armellino and colleagues showed reduced selection bias in video surveillance in comparison to direct observation that falsely”
BackgroundFeggetter, A. J. W. (2007) · International Coaching Psychology Review · doi:10.53841/bpsicpr.2007.2.2.129 · Cited by 14
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“These include “the Hawthorne effect” (see e.g., Payne & Payne, 2004, Adair, 1984), “observer effects” (see e.g., Monahan & Fisher, 2010, Risinger et al., 2002), “experimenter demand effects” (Zizzo, 2010), “researcher effects” (see e.g., Monahan & Fisher, 2010), “experimenter effects” (Rosenthal,…”
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“Furthermore, as recently noted [3], a Hawthorne effect cannot be ruled out in uncontrolled studies; meaning that the increased attention on a problem may in itself produce a positive effect [17].”
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BackgroundEkstract, M., Holtzman, G. I., Kim, K. Y., Willis, S. M., & Zallen, D. T. (2016) · Genetics in Medicine · doi:10.1038/gim.2016.170 · Cited by 13
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“With other potential inherent biases in user study (e.g., Hawthorne effect [1] and demand characteristics [45]), participants might assume that the study expects them to show attitude change and be ready to adjust their opinions regardless of conditions.”
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“Seventh, participants completed items either before or after their clinic visit, and one could argue that timing may have in fl uenced the fi ndings attributed to the Hawthorne [1] or other effects.”
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“Interventional studies regarding carotid ultrasound and CAC screening have tended to be small and many are subject to a Hawthorne effect.(75) The largest randomized trial of a subclinical atherosclerosis imaging intervention involved CAC screening of 450 asymptomatic Army personnel and looked at 1-year change in Frami…”
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“This effect is described as a change of behaviour when a human subject is being observed (Adair 1984).”
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Tight, M. (2022) · Higher Education Quarterly · doi:10.1111/hequ.12388 · Cited by 11
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“Hawthorne checks (Mayo 1949; Adair 1984; Parsons 1992) against extraneous perceptual effects of treatments constitute a third validity test.”
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Roshchina, Y. M. (2016) · Journal of Economic Sociology · doi:10.17323/1726-3247-2016-3-13-36 · Cited by 12
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Kumar, A. (2010) · Cited by 12
On the virtues of laboratory babies and student bath water: A reply to Dobbins, Lane, and Steiner
Slade, L. A., & Gordon, M. E. (1988) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.4030090409 · Cited by 12
An examination of the effects of eye-tracking on behavior in psychology experiments
Worthy, D. A., Lahey, J., Priestley, S. L., & Palma, M. A. (2024) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-024-02393-5 · Cited by 16
“This change would be considered a type of Hawthorne effect in which participants alter their behavior when they know they are being watched compared to what their behavior would have been if they did not know they were being watched (Adair, 1984).”
Mass Administration of Azithromycin to Infants in Mali to Reduce Mortality
Haidara, F. C., Adubra, L., Abdou, M., Alber, D., Ashorn, U., Cheung, Y. B., Cloutman-Green, E., Diallo, M., Ducker, C., Fan, Y., et al. (2025) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmoa2504644 · Cited by 11
“These results suggest a possible Hawthorne-effect on mortality (40) but may also reflect a national reduction in under-five mortality (41), which could partially explain the lack of effect observed in our trial (42).”
Waldron, C.-A., Gallacher, J., van der Weijden, T., Newcombe, R. G., & Elwyn, G. J. (2010) · BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making · doi:10.1186/1472-6947-10-41 · Cited by 10
“This is to address the possibility of the Hawthorne effect [46] of the four groups and the effect of thinking about cardiovascular risk before viewing actual risk.”
BackgroundReactivity in measuring sensitive online behavior
Keusch, F., Bach, R. L., & Cernat, A. (2022) · Internet Research · doi:10.1108/intr-01-2021-0053 · Cited by 11
Park, E. S., Peccoud, M., Wicks, K. A., Halldorson, J. B., Carithers, R. L., Reyes, J. D., & Perkins, J. D. (2010) · Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association · doi:10.1136/jamia.2009.000992 · Cited by 11
“As with any time series or before/after observational study, we must point out potential difficulties with our conclusion regarding the clinical effectiveness of our automated clinical management system. All patients were formerly tracked using the paper charting system; we switched to the automated system to follow o…”
León, S., Rivera, M., Payero, S., Correa‐Beltrán, G., Hugo, F. N., & Giacaman, R. A. (2018) · International Dental Journal · doi:10.1111/idj.12415 · Cited by 11
Tracking a Person’s Behaviour in a Smart House
Chand, G., Ali, M., Barmada, B., Liesaputra, V., & Ramirez‐Prado, G. (2019) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-17642-6_21 · Cited by 11
Combatting carelessness: Can placement of quality check items help reduce careless responses?
Reyes, D. L. (2020) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-020-01183-4 · Cited by 11
“For example, Adair (1984) suggested that rather than participants altering their behavior because of their awareness of being observed, they alter their behavior based on their interpretations of how they believe the researcher wants them to act, known as demand effects (For more details on the…”
BackgroundLauder, L., Ewen, S., Glasmacher, J., Lammert, F., Reith, W., Schreiber, N., Kaddu‐Mulindwa, D., Ukena, C., Böhm, M., Meyer, M. R., et al. (2021) · Journal of Hypertension · doi:10.1097/hjh.0000000000002842 · Cited by 12
“Of note, the included studies used indirect methods to assess medication adherence, which are assumed to be less accurate than direct methods [43] and might overestimate drug adherence for several reasons, including biased responses [44].”
BackgroundDatenreiche Medizin und das Problem der Einwilligung
Richter, G., Loh, W., Buyx, A., von Kielmansegg, S. G., & GmbH, S.-V. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-62987-1 · Cited by 11
VDU-screen filters: remedy or the ubiquitous Hawthorne effect?
Fostervold, K. I., Buckmann, E., & Lie, I. (2001) · International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/s0169-8141(00)00042-1 · Cited by 11
Sun, T., Gao, Y., Khaladkar, S., Liu, S., Zhao, L., Kim, Y., & Hong, S.-S. (2023) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3610187 · Cited by 15
“We are aware of the potential Hawthorne and novelty effects of having overestimated results when participants are being studied and new to our system [2, 21, 52].”
BackgroundTerwindt, L. E., Tol, J. T. M., van der Ven, W. H., Kurucz, V. C., Noteboom, S. H., Breel, J. S., van der Ster, B. J. P., Kho, E., Immink, R. V., Schenk, J., et al. (2024) · Journal of Clinical Anesthesia · doi:10.1016/j.jclinane.2024.111671 · Cited by 10
Itzchakov, G., Barsade, S. G., & Cheshin, A. (2024) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/apps.12582 · Cited by 12
A comparative study on reward models for user interface adaptation with reinforcement learning
Gaspar-Figueiredo, D., Fernández-Diego, M., Abrahão, S., & Insfrán, E. (2025) · Empirical Software Engineering · doi:10.1007/s10664-025-10659-5 · Cited by 10
“The Hawthorne effect (Adair 1984), where participants may alter their behavior as a result of being observed, was mitigated by instructing the participants to behave as they would in a natural setting.”
Tuncer, B. B., Bavbek, N. C., Avan, B. A., Çelik, B., & Tuncer, C. (2020) · Acta Odontologica Turcica · doi:10.17214/gaziaot.669976 · Cited by 10
Quantifying the benefits of simulator training for dragline operators
Dorey, F., & Knights, P. F. (2015) · Mining Technology Transactions of the Institutions of Mining and Metallurgy · doi:10.1179/1743286315y.0000000007 · Cited by 10
“This arises when the subjects are aware that their behaviour is being measured, and they modify their behaviour accordingly (Adair, 1984).”
BackgroundLong‐term treatment effects of insulin pump therapy
Garmo, A., Garmo, H., Ärnlöv, J., & Leksell, J. K. (2011) · Practical Diabetes · doi:10.1002/pdi.1618 · Cited by 10
Metadata
- Authors
- Adair, J. G.
- Affiliations
- University of Manitoba (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Adair, John G.
- Venue
- Journal of Applied Psychology
- Published
- 1984-05
- Volume
- 69
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 334-345
- ISSN
- 0021-9010 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1854
- OpenAlex
- W2078241739
- Cited by
- 1,095
- References
- 39
- Citations by year
- 2026: 63 · 2025: 88 · 2024: 55 · 2023: 36 · 2022: 43 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 57 · 2019: 50 · 2018: 47 · 2017: 40 · 2016: 66 · 2015: 65 · 2014: 58 · 2013: 52 · 2012: 54
- FWCI
- 2.77
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Applied Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychology Research and Bibliometrics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › General Psychology › Academic and Historical Perspectives in Psychology
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Experimental Behavioral Economics Studies
- Keywords
- Hawthorne effect, methodological artifacts, field experiments, experimenter effects, Hawthorne studies, Western Electric Company, educational research
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