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The Hawthorne effect: A reconsideration of the methodological artifact.
Abstract
Reviews the literature on the Hawthorne effect (HE) which originated out of the studies at the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company. This effect is generally defined as the problem in field experiments that Ss' knowledge that they are in an experiment modifies their behavior from what it would have been without the knowledge. An examination of the Hawthorne studies conducted 50 yrs ago does not reveal this “effect” probably because there were so many uncontrolled variables. HE is inconsistently described in contemporary psychology textbooks, and there is lack of agreement on how the effect is mediated. Controls for the HE in current field research (mostly in education) took several forms, each designed for different purposes. In 13 studies designed to produce HEs, only 4 using adult Ss were successful. It is suggested that most persons in any clearly identified situation define the context for their behavior and respond accordingly; the necessity to ascertain Ss' view of the experiment requires different procedures than those typically used to control for HEs in the past. It is concluded that better articulation of how to adapt postexperimental questioning procedures to a diversity of experimental settings is needed. (68 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved)
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“According to the Hawthorne effect, individuals will alter their behaviors in response to being studied and usually refer to positive changes [42].”
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“To control for any improvement in psychological variables by simply intervening [22] and to try to ensure that any differences between groups might be attributable to the difference in aerobically intense PE between the two groups, control and intervention groups were matched for intervention time.”
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“The positive effects may also be explained by a Hawthorne effect, which refers to the possibility the participants in the intervention group showed positive changes as a result of being treated differently and receiving more attention (Adair, 1984).”
BackgroundRIGOR IN BEHAVIORAL EXPERIMENTS: A BASIC PRIMER FOR SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT RESEARCHERS
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Goodwin, M. A., Stange, K. C., Zyzanski, S. J., Crabtree, B. F., Borawski, E. A., & Flocke, S. A. (2017) · Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1111/jep.12781 · Cited by 116
“Some prior research suggests that observation may not result in significant changes in behaviour.(8,15-18) A systematic review of 19 studies assessing a Hawthorne effect foundmixed results by study type.”
BackgroundResultAu, J., Buschkuehl, M., Duncan, G. J., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2015) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-015-0967-4 · Cited by 122
“…intervention between test periods), they reported a non-significant ES of g = 0.09 (SE: 0.08) and argued that the effects of WM training in improving Gf are driven solely by placebo or Hawthorne effects (c.f., Adair, 1984), which are controlled for in studies with active but not passive controls.”
BackgroundInfluentialEffectiveness and cost effectiveness of counselling in primary care
Bower, P., Rowland, N. E., Clark, J. M., Heywood, P., Godfrey, C., & Hardy, R. (2002) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd001025 · Cited by 121
Reduction of ventilator-associated pneumonia: active versus passive guideline implementation
Hawe, C. S., Ellis, K. S., Cairns, C. J. S., & Longmate, A. G. (2009) · Intensive Care Medicine · doi:10.1007/s00134-009-1461-0 · Cited by 109
“[39], although this is by definition only temporary.”
BackgroundPatel, J. N., Ahmed, K., Guru, K. A., Khan, F., Marsh, H. P., Khan, M. S., & Prokar Dasgupta, A. (2014) · International Journal of Surgery · doi:10.1016/j.ijsu.2014.10.031 · Cited by 108
“It explains that the behavior of participants in a study changes under the circumstances of that study, and that they are more likely to be compliant and vigilant simply due to the fact that they are being observed [31].”
BackgroundMedication reconciliation at admission and discharge: a time and motion study
Meguerditchian, A. N., Krotneva, S., Reidel, K. E., Huang, A. R., & Tamblyn, R. M. (2013) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/1472-6963-13-485 · Cited by 108
Ercümen, A., Naser, A. M., UNICOMB, L. E., Arnold, B. F., Colford, J. M., & Luby, S. P. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0121907 · Cited by 115
“In order to prevent potential differential Hawthorne effects between study arms, where Hawthorne effect is defined as subjects perceiving or reporting spurious health benefits as a consequence of “being watched and unusual attention being paid” [34,35], the control group was visited with the same frequency as the inte…”
Khalil, H. W., Quinn, L., Deursen, R. W. M. V., Dawes, H., Playle, R., Rosser, A., & Busse, M. E. (2013) · Clinical Rehabilitation · doi:10.1177/0269215512473762 · Cited by 105
Suggestion, Cognition, and Behavior
Michael, R. B., Garry, M., & Kirsch, I. (2012) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721412446369 · Cited by 99
“But as research has shown (Adair, 1984; Wickström & Bendix, 2000), reports of these studies—often included in textbooks—are riddled with errors that dramatically limit the inferences that can be drawn from them: variables (such as music) are described as having been manipulated, but they never…”
BackgroundDeveloper Testing in the IDE: Patterns, Beliefs, and Behavior
Beller, M., Gousios, G., Panichella, A., Proksch, S., Amann, S., & Zaidman, A. (2017) · IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering · doi:10.1109/tse.2017.2776152 · Cited by 103
“The Hawthorne effect [89] poses a similar threat: participants of our studywould bemore prone to use, run, and edit”
BackgroundQuick, R. E., Venczel, L., González, O., Mintz, E. D., Highsmith, A. K., Espada, A., Damiani, E., Bean, N. H., Hannover, E. H. D., & Tauxe, R. V. (1996) · American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene · doi:10.4269/ajtmh.1996.54.511 · Cited by 103
“If the number of colonies on a single filter was in the countable range (10-100).”
BackgroundChanges from ICD-10 to ICD-11 and future directionsin psychiatric classification
Gaebel, W., Stricker, J., & Kerst, A. (2020) · Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.31887/dcns.2020.22.1/wgaebel · Cited by 98
Calavia, M. B., Blanco, T., & Casas, R. (2020) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2020.100761 · Cited by 129
Best practice interventions: Short‐term impact and long‐term outcomes
Done, A., Voss, C., & Rytter, N. G. M. (2010) · Journal of Operations Management · doi:10.1016/j.jom.2010.11.007 · Cited by 101
Making sense of social research: How useful is the Hawthorne Effect?
Chiesa, M., & Hobbs, S. (2008) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.401 · Cited by 141
Chua, P.-H., Jung, Y., Lwin, M. O., & Theng, Y.-L. (2013) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2013.04.037 · Cited by 98
Kasper, J., Köpke, S., Mühlhauser, I., Nübling, M., & Heesen, C. (2008) · European Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1111/j.1468-1331.2008.02313.x · Cited by 98
“This phenomenon known as Hawthorne effect [21], might have caused an enhanced motivation for thorough evaluation of the decision by the method of measurement.”
BackgroundFull-spectrum fluorescent lighting: a review of its effects on physiology and health
McColl, S. L., & Veitch, J. A. (2001) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291701004251 · Cited by 96
The Concept of Workplace Performance and its Value to Managers
Vischer, J. C. (2007) · California Management Review · doi:10.2307/41166383 · Cited by 93
“These findings are reminiscent of the changes in task performance found in the 1940s in the famous Hawthorne studies of lighting in factories, and they lead to concerns that any environmental change improves team performance regardless of its actual effect on ITP.(15) More judiciously, several recent studies conclude…”
ResultInfluentialScorecard Diplomacy: Grading States to Influence their Reputation and Behavior
Kelley, J. G. (2017) · DukeSpace (Duke University) · Cited by 92
Adair, J. G., Sharpe, D., & Huynh, C. (1989) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543059002215 · Cited by 92
“Such an artifact has been proposed as an alternative explanation for the Hawthorne effect (Adair, 1984; Schneiderman, 1977).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationThe Hawthorne Effect: a fresh examination
Diaper, G. (1990) · Educational Studies · doi:10.1080/0305569900160305 · Cited by 92
Impact of observing hand hygiene in practice and research: a methodological reconsideration
Gould, D. J., Creedon, S. A., Jeanes, A., Drey, N., Chudleigh, J. H., & Moralejo, D. G. (2016) · Journal of Hospital Infection · doi:10.1016/j.jhin.2016.08.008 · Cited by 92
Metadata
- Authors
- Adair, J. G.
- Affiliations
- University of Manitoba (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Adair, John G.
- Venue
- Journal of Applied Psychology
- Published
- 1984-05
- Volume
- 69
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 334-345
- ISSN
- 0021-9010 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1854
- OpenAlex
- W2078241739
- Cited by
- 1,095
- References
- 39
- Citations by year
- 2026: 63 · 2025: 88 · 2024: 55 · 2023: 36 · 2022: 43 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 57 · 2019: 50 · 2018: 47 · 2017: 40 · 2016: 66 · 2015: 65 · 2014: 58 · 2013: 52 · 2012: 54
- FWCI
- 2.77
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Applied Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychology Research and Bibliometrics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › General Psychology › Academic and Historical Perspectives in Psychology
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Experimental Behavioral Economics Studies
- Keywords
- Hawthorne effect, methodological artifacts, field experiments, experimenter effects, Hawthorne studies, Western Electric Company, educational research
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