Task complexity as a moderator of goal effects: a meta-analysis

Wood, Robert E.; Mento, Anthony J.; Locke, Edwin A.

doi:10.1037/0021-9010.72.3.416

Cited by 598Education, Achievement, and GiftednessEmployee Performance and MotivationBehavioral Health and Interventions

Task complexity as a moderator of goal effects: a meta-analysis

Wood, Robert E., Mento, Anthony J., Locke, Edwin A.·1987·Journal of Applied Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0021-9010.72.3.416

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Abstract

Much evidence exists that supports the use of goal setting as a motivational technique for enhancing task performance; howevei; little attention has been given to the role of task characteristics as potential moderating conditions of goal effects. Meta-analysis procedures were used to assess the moderator effects of task complexity for goal-setting studies conducted from 1966 to 1985 (n = 125). The reliability ofthe task complexity ratings was .92. Three sets of analyses were conducted: for goaldifficulty results (hard vs. easy), for goal specificity-difficulty (specific difficult goals vs. do-best or no goal), and for all studies collapsed across goal difficulty and goal specificity-difficulty. It was generally found that goal-setting effects were strongest for easy tasks (reaction time, brainstorming), d = .76, and weakest for more complex tasks (business game simulations, scientific and engineering work, faculty research productivity), d = .42. Implications for future research on goal setting and the validity of generalizing results are discussed.

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In psychological literature, complexity and difficulty of tasks are often used interchangeably.
“Resulting flaws concerning information processing capacities emerge often in the psychological literature in which “complexity” and “difficulty” of tasks are used interchangeably (see for examples: Wood et al., 1987; McDowd and Craik, 1988).”
From Human- versus Artificial Intelligence (2021) · cites this paper as Wood et al., 1987

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“…lack of standardization of defini-248 tions pertaining to what constitutes task complexity as a result of the variable and empirically hard to determine confounding nature of the person-task interaction (Campbell, 1988; Fleish-man, 1975; Hackman, 1969; Weick, 1965; Wood, 1986; Wood et al., 1987).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
The need for and meaning of positive organizational behavior
Luthans, F. (2002) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.165 · Cited by 3,121 · see citing works
Social cognitive theory of organizational management
Wood, R., & Bandura, A. (1989) · The Academy of Management Review · doi:10.2307/258173 · Cited by 3,357 · see citing works
Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content.
Austin, J. T., & Vancouver, J. B. (1996) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.120.3.338 · Cited by 2,319 · see citing works
Motivation and cognitive abilities: an integrative/aptitude-treatment interaction approach to skill acquisition
Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. (1989) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.74.4.657 · Cited by 2,177 · see citing works
Organizational behavior and human decision processes
Armstrong, J. S. (1988) · International Journal of Forecasting · doi:10.1016/0169-2070(88)90125-2 · Cited by 1,766 · see citing works
Impact of conceptions of ability on self-regulatory mechanisms and complex decision making.
Wood, R. E., & Bandura, A. (1989) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.56.3.407 · Cited by 1,556 · see citing works
The relationship of age to ten dimensions of job performance.
Ng, T. W. H., & Feldman, D. C. (2008) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.93.2.392 · Cited by 1,224 · see citing works
Effect of perceived controllability and performance standards on self-regulation of complex decision making.
Bandura, A., & Wood, R. E. (1989) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.56.5.805 · Cited by 1,076 · see citing works
Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goal Setting and Task Motivation
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002) · American Psychologist · Cited by 1,070 · see citing works
The effects of monetary incentives on effort and task performance: theories, evidence, and a framework for research
BONNER, S. E., & Sprinkle, G. B. (2002) · Accounting Organizations and Society · doi:10.1016/s0361-3682(01)00052-6 · Cited by 955 · see citing works
“None of these studies measured skill, self-efficacy, goals, arousal (stress), or any dimensions of effort, although we do know that meta-analyses of the effect of task complexity in the positive relations between, respectively, self-efficacy and goal setting and performance find that the effects of these factors decre…”
Background
Work Motivation and Satisfaction: Light at the End of the Tunnel
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1990.tb00207.x · Cited by 923 · see citing works
A meta-analysis of self-regulated learning in work-related training and educational attainment: what we know and where we need to go.
Sitzmann, T., & Ely, K. (2011) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0022777 · Cited by 897 · see citing works
Task complexity affects information seeking and use
Byström, K., & Järvelin, K. (1995) · Information Processing & Management · doi:10.1016/0306-4573(94)00041-z · Cited by 887 · see citing works
Six Sigma: a goal‐theoretic perspective
Linderman, K., Schroeder, R. G., Zaheer, S., & Choo, A. S. (2002) · Journal of Operations Management · doi:10.1016/s0272-6963(02)00087-6 · Cited by 881 · see citing works
Self-efficacy and work-related performance: the integral role of individual differences.
Judge, T., Jackson, C. L., Shaw, J. C., Scott, B., & Rich, B. (2007) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.92.1.107 · Cited by 901 · see citing works
THE RELATIONSHIPS OF AGE WITH JOB ATTITUDES: A META-ANALYSIS
Ng, T. W. H., & Feldman, D. C. (2010) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2010.01184.x · Cited by 830 · see citing works
Organizational Learning from Performance Feedback
Greve, H. R. (2003) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511615139 · Cited by 1,029 · see citing works
GOAL SETTING AS A MOTIVATOR OF UNETHICAL BEHAVIOR.
Schweitzer, M. E., Ordonez, L., & Douma, B. M. (2004) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.2307/20159591 · Cited by 682 · see citing works
Handbook of Industrial, Work & Organizational Psychology
Anderson, N. R., Öneş, D. S., Sinangil, H. K., & Viswesvaran, C. (2001) · Sage eBooks · Cited by 632 · see citing works
Human- versus Artificial Intelligence
Korteling, J. E. (., van de Boer-Visschedijk, G. C., Blankendaal, R. A. M., Boonekamp, R. C., & Eikelboom, A. R. (2021) · Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.3389/frai.2021.622364 · Cited by 619 · see citing works
“Resulting ﬂ aws concerning information processing capacities emerge often in the psychological literature in which “ complexity ” and “ dif ﬁ culty ” of tasks are used interchangeably (see for examples: Wood et al., 1987; McDowd and Craik, 1988).”
Goal commitment and the goal-setting process: Conceptual clarification and empirical synthesis.
Klein, H. J., Wesson, M. J., Hollenbeck, J. R., & Alge, B. J. (1999) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.84.6.885 · Cited by 573 · see citing works
EFFECTS OF SELF‐EFFICACY AND POST‐TRAINING INTERVENTION ON THE ACQUISITION AND MAINTENANCE OF COMPLEX INTERPERSONAL SKILLS
Gist, M. E., Stevens, C. K., & Bavetta, A. G. (1991) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1991.tb00701.x · Cited by 502 · see citing works
An Integrated Control Theory Model of Work Motivation
Klein, H. J. (1989) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.1989.4282072 · Cited by 486 · see citing works
Gamification of task performance with leaderboards: A goal setting experiment
Landers, R. N., Bauer, K. N., & Callan, R. C. (2017) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.08.008 · Cited by 474 · see citing works
“As demonstrated by Wood et al. (1987), more complex tasks are likely to produce somewhat smaller effects, although the precise magnitude of this difference is currently unknown.”
Background
HOW BROADLY DOES EDUCATION CONTRIBUTE TO JOB PERFORMANCE?
Ng, T. W. H., & Feldman, D. C. (2009) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2008.01130.x · Cited by 480 · see citing works
Organizational learning from performance feedback a behavioral perspective on innovation and change
Greve, H. R. (2003) · Cited by 468 · see citing works
Self-Regulation of Motivation and Action Through Goal Systems
Bandura, A. (1988) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-009-2792-6_2 · Cited by 470 · see citing works
Motivation related to work: A century of progress.
Kanfer, R., Fresé, M., & Johnson, R. E. (2017) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000133 · Cited by 493 · see citing works
Goal Setting as a Strategy for Health Behavior Change
Strecher, V. J., Seijts, G. H., Kok, G. J., Latham, G. P., Glasgow, R., DeVellis, B., Meertens, R. M., & Bulger, D. W. (1995) · Health Education Quarterly · doi:10.1177/109019819502200207 · Cited by 445 · see citing works
Task complexity: A review and conceptualization framework
Liu, P., & Li, Z. (2012) · International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/j.ergon.2012.09.001 · Cited by 438 · see citing works
New Developments in and Directions for Goal-Setting Research
Latham, G. P., & Locke, E. A. (2007) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027/1016-9040.12.4.290 · Cited by 596 · see citing works
The Handbook of Behavior Change
Hagger, M. S., Cameron, L. D., Hamilton, K., Hankonen, N. E., & Lintunen, T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108677318 · Cited by 420 · see citing works
A Review of the Effects of Financial Incentives on Performance in Laboratory Tasks: Implications for Management Accounting
BONNER, S. E., Hastie, R., Sprinkle, G. B., & Young, S. M. (2000) · Journal of Management Accounting Research · doi:10.2308/jmar.2000.12.1.19 · Cited by 395 · see citing works
Unique effects of setting goals on behavior change: Systematic review and meta-analysis.
Epton, T., Currie, S., & Armitage, C. J. (2017) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/ccp0000260 · Cited by 383 · see citing works
“Task complexity has been the focus of two reviews, one of which found that increased task complexity decreased the effect of goals on individual performance (Wood et al., 1987).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
When Does Cross-Cultural Motivation Enhance Expatriate Effectiveness? A Multilevel Investigation of the Moderating Roles of Subsidiary Support and Cultural Distance
Chen, G., Kirkman, B. L., Kim, K., Farh, C. I. C., & Tangirala, S. (2010) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2010.54533217 · Cited by 385 · see citing works
The impact of knowledge transfer and complexity on supply chain flexibility: A knowledge-based view
Blome, C., Schoenherr, T., & Eckstein, D. (2013) · International Journal of Production Economics · doi:10.1016/j.ijpe.2013.02.028 · Cited by 386 · see citing works
A model of the effects of audit task complexity
BONNER, S. E. (1994) · Accounting Organizations and Society · doi:10.1016/0361-3682(94)90033-7 · Cited by 372 · see citing works
“These results are similar to those found by Wood et aL (1987) in a meta-analysis of several goal-setting studies, i.e. that the effects of goals on performance were weaker for complex tasks.”
Result
The Assessment of Goal Commitment: A Measurement Model Meta-Analysis
Klein, H. J., Wesson, M. J., Hollenbeck, J. R., Wright, P. M., & DeShon, R. P. (2001) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1006/obhd.2000.2931 · Cited by 370 · see citing works
“For task complexity, the studies were classified as employing low (e.g., perceptual speed, anagrams), moderate (e.g., scholastic course work), or high (e.g., multiple cue probability learning) complexity tasks based on the categories provided by Wood et al. (1987).”
Method
Self-Efficacy and Leadership Effectiveness: Applying Social Cognitive Theory to Leadership
McCormick, M. (2001) · Journal of Leadership Studies · doi:10.1177/107179190100800102 · Cited by 395 · see citing works
DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTS OF INCENTIVE MOTIVATORS ON WORK PERFORMANCE.
Stajković, A. D., & Luthans, F. (2001) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.2307/3069372 · Cited by 355 · see citing works
TASK REVISION: A NEGLECTED FORM OF WORK PERFORMANCE.
Staw, B. M., & Boettger, R. (1990) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.2307/256580 · Cited by 356 · see citing works
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR IN THE NEW ORGANIZATIONAL ERA
Rousseau, D. M. (1997) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.48.1.515 · Cited by 351 · see citing works
Pressure and Performance in Accounting Decision Settings: Paradoxical Effects of Incentives, Feedback, and Justification
Ashton, R. H. (1990) · Journal of Accounting Research · doi:10.2307/2491253 · Cited by 342 · see citing works
The effect of goal setting on group performance: A meta-analysis.
Kleingeld, A., van Mierlo, H., & Arends, L. (2011) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0024315 · Cited by 341 · see citing works
Motivating Employees in a New Governance Era: The Performance Paradigm Revisited
Perry, J. L., Mesch, D. J., & Paarlberg, L. E. (2006) · Public Administration Review · doi:10.1111/j.1540-6210.2006.00611.x · Cited by 337 · see citing works
“…and Pinder (2005) , Locke and Latham (2002), Mento, Steel, and Karren (1987), O ’ Leary-Kelly, Martocchio, and Frink (1994), Rodgers and Hunter (1991, 1992), Tubbs (1986) , Woff ord, Goodwin, and Premack (1992), Wood, Mento, and Locke (1987), Wright (1990, 2001), and Zetik and Stuhlmacher (2002) .”
Background
Transfer of communication skills training from workshop to workplace: the impact of clinical supervision
Heaven, C., Clegg, J., & Maguire, P. (2006) · Patient Education and Counseling · doi:10.1016/j.pec.2005.08.008 · Cited by 323 · see citing works
“For the transfer of complex heuristic tasks, like communication or assessment, it has been shown that the latter (self-management programmes) are more effective [33,35,36].”
Background
Hope: A New Positive Strength for Human Resource Development
Luthans, F., & Jensen, S. M. (2002) · Human Resource Development Review · doi:10.1177/1534484302013003 · Cited by 322 · see citing works
Method and context perspectives on learning and knowledge creation in quality management
Choo, A. S., Linderman, K., & Schroeder, R. G. (2006) · Journal of Operations Management · doi:10.1016/j.jom.2006.08.002 · Cited by 308 · see citing works
Mechanisms governing organizational performance in complex decision-making environments
Wood, R. E., Bandura, A., & Bailey, T. (1990) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/0749-5978(90)90028-8 · Cited by 303 · see citing works
Changing Behavior Using the Theory of Planned Behavior
Ajzen, I., & Schmidt, P. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108677318.002 · Cited by 303 · see citing works
Task type as a moderator of positive/negative feedback effects on motivation and performance: A regulatory focus perspective
Dijk, D. V., & Kluger, A. N. (2010) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.725 · Cited by 276 · see citing works
Challenge versus threat effects on the goal–performance relationship
Drach‐Zahavy, A., & Erez, M. (2002) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/s0749-5978(02)00004-3 · Cited by 268 · see citing works
“In addition, results from a meta-analysis conducted by Wood et al. (1987) showed that the goal-setting effects were strongest for easy tasks (reaction time, brainstorming), and weakest for more complex tasks (business game simulations, scientific, and engineering work, faculty research…”
Software Development Practices, Software Complexity, and Software Maintenance Performance: A Field Study
Banker, R. D., Davis, G. B., & Slaughter, S. A. (1998) · Management Science · doi:10.1287/mnsc.44.4.433 · Cited by 270 · see citing works
An Assessment of the Experimental Literature on Electronic Support of Group Work: Results of a Meta-Analysis
McLeod, P. L. (1992) · Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1207/s15327051hci0703_1 · Cited by 265 · see citing works
Long work hours: a social identity perspective on meta‐analysis data
Ng, T. W. H., & Feldman, D. C. (2008) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.536 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
The Effect of Learning versus Outcome Goals on a Simple versus a Complex Task
Winters, D., & Latham, G. P. (1996) · Group & Organization Management · doi:10.1177/1059601196212007 · Cited by 262 · see citing works
Psychological contract breaches, organizational commitment, and innovation-related behaviors: A latent growth modeling approach.
Ng, T. W. H., Feldman, D. C., & Lam, S. S. K. (2010) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0018804 · Cited by 261 · see citing works
Goal setting, conditions of practice, and task performance: A resource allocation perspective.
Kanfer, R., Ackerman, P. L., Murtha, T. C., Dugdale, B., & Nelson, L. C. (1994) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.79.6.826 · Cited by 256 · see citing works
Gender differences in the acquisition of salary negotiation skills: The role of goals, self-efficacy, and perceived control.
Stevens, C. K., Bavetta, A. G., & Gist, M. E. (1993) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.78.5.723 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
Business owners' action planning and its relationship to business success in three African countries.
Fresé, M., Krauss, S. I., Keith, N., Escher, S., Grabarkiewicz, R., Luneng, S. T., Heers, C., Unger, J., & Friedrich, C. (2007) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.92.6.1481 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
Effects of Objective and Subjective Task Complexity on Performance
Maynard, D. C., & Hakel, M. D. (1997) · Human Performance · doi:10.1207/s15327043hup1004_1 · Cited by 249 · see citing works
Enriching Goal-Setting Theory with Time: An Integrated Approach
Fried, Y., & Slowik, L. H. (2004) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2004.13670973 · Cited by 242 · see citing works
Handbook of Organizational Routines
Narduzzo, A., & Warglien, M. (2008) · Edward Elgar Publishing eBooks · doi:10.4337/9781848442702 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
The effect of financial incentives on performance: A quantitative review of individual and team‐based financial incentives
Garbers, Y., & Konradt, U. (2013) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/joop.12039 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
Gender diversity in R&D teams and innovation efficiency: Role of the innovation context
Xie, L., Zhou, J., Zong, Q., & Lu, Q. (2019) · Research Policy · doi:10.1016/j.respol.2019.103885 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
The Roles of Self-Efficacy and Task Complexity in the Relationships Among Cognitive Ability, Conscientiousness, and Work-Related Performance: A Meta-Analytic Examination
Chen, G., Casper, W. J., & Cortina, J. M. (2001) · Human Performance · doi:10.1207/s15327043hup1403_1 · Cited by 236 · see citing works
“All three authors independently coded the tasks for which self-efficacy scales were targeted as being high or low on task complexity based on Wood’s (1986) theoretical framework and consistent with procedures described in Stajkovic and Luthans (1998) and in Wood, Mento, and Locke (1987).”
Method
The Left Side of Psychological Capital
Avey, J. B. (2014) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/1548051813515516 · Cited by 237 · see citing works
Individual and group goals when workers are interdependent: Effects on task strategies and performance.
Mitchell, T. R., & Silver, W. S. (1990) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.75.2.185 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
Leader individual differences, situational parameters, and leadership outcomes: A comprehensive review and integration
Zaccaro, S. J., Green, J. P., Dubrow, S. R., & Kolze, M. (2017) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.10.003 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
Brainstorming Reconsidered: A Goal-Based View
Litchfield, R. C. (2008) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2008.32465708 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
The appropriateness of RAPM: toward the further development of theory
Hartmann, F. G. H. (2000) · Accounting, Organizations and Society · doi:10.1016/s0361-3682(98)00036-1 · Cited by 324 · see citing works
Working in our sleep
Barnes, C. M. (2012) · Organizational Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/2041386612450181 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
The Role of Self-Reflection, Emotional Management of Feedback, and Self-Regulation Processes in Self-Directed Leadership Development
Nesbit, P. (2012) · Human Resource Development Review · doi:10.1177/1534484312439196 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
“This problem, which reflects the difficulty of setting effective courses of actions for complex goals (Wood, Mento, & Locke, 1987), is compounded by the cyclic nature and inter-play between motivational, meta-cognitive, and behavioral influences underpinning self-regulation.”
Background
Factors Affecting Software Developers’ Performance: An Integrated Approach1
Rasch, R. H., & Tosi, H. L. (1992) · MIS Quarterly · doi:10.2307/249535 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
Psychological Theory and the Gamification of Learning
Landers, R. N., Bauer, K. N., Callan, R. C., & Armstrong, M. B. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-10208-5_9 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Error orientation questionnaire (EOQ): reliability, validity, and different language equivalence
Rybowiak, V., Garst, H., Fresé, M., & Batinic, B. (1999) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-1379(199907)20:4 · Cited by 345 · see citing works
Goal setting and the differential influence of self-regulatory processes on complex decision-making performance.
Cervone, D., Jiwani, N., & Wood, R. E. (1991) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.61.2.257 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
The role of method in treatment effectiveness research: Evidence from meta-analysis.
Wilson, D. B., & Lipsey, M. W. (2001) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.6.4.413 · Cited by 261 · see citing works
The Value of Feedback and Goal Setting Over Goal Setting Alone and Potential Moderators of this Effect: a Meta-Analysis
Neubert, M. J. (1998) · Human Performance · doi:10.1207/s15327043hup1104_2 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
Factors Affecting Information Technology Usage: A Meta-Analysis of the Empirical Literature
Mahmood, M. A., Hall, L. L., & Swanberg, D. L. (2001) · Journal of Organizational Computing and Electronic Commerce · doi:10.1207/s15327744joce1102_02 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
“Meta-analysis has been applied to literature in the social sciences [55], general management [56], and IS [57].”
Method
Separating the effects of goal specificity from goal level
Locke, E. A., Chah, D.-O., Harrison, S., & Lustgarten, N. (1989) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/0749-5978(89)90053-8 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Reinforce for performance: The need to go beyond pay and even rewards
Luthans, F., & Stajković, A. D. (1999) · Academy of Management Perspectives · doi:10.5465/ame.1999.1899548 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
Leading from different psychological distances: A construal-level perspective on vision communication, goal setting, and follower motivation
Berson, Y., Halevy, N., Shamir, B., & Erez, M. (2014) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2014.07.011 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Having the will and finding the way: A review and meta-analysis of hope at work
Reichard, R. J., Avey, J. B., Lopez, S. J., & Dollwet, M. (2013) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2013.800903 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
Task Complexity: Extending a Core Concept
Hærem, T., Pentland, B. T., & Miller, K. D. (2014) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2013.0350 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
“…ideal model has demonstrated its usefulness by showing that task complexity moderates the effects on task performance of individual-level motivation variables, including self-efficacy, goals, and performance versus mastery orientations (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998; Utman, 1997; Wood et al., 1987).”
Background
TRANSFER TRAINING METHOD: ITS INFLUENCE ON SKILL GENERALIZATION, SKILL REPETITION, AND PERFORMANCE LEVEL
Gist, M. E., Bavetta, A. G., & Stevens, C. K. (1990) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1990.tb02394.x · Cited by 180 · see citing works
The Importance of Future Time Perspective in Theories of Work Motivation
Seijts, G. (1998) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223989809599156 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Making Sense of Motivational Leadership: The Trail from Transformational Leaders to Motivated Followers
Ilieș, R., Judge, T. A., & Wagner, D. T. (2006) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/10717919070130010301 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Missing the mark: Effects of time and causal attributions on goal revision in response to goal-performance discrepancies.
Donovan, J. J., & Williams, K. J. (2003) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.88.3.379 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
A Theoretical Study of Organizational Performance Under Information Distortion
Carley, K. M., & Lin, Z. “. (1997) · Management Science · doi:10.1287/mnsc.43.7.976 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Need for achievement, business goals, and entrepreneurial persistence
Wu, S., Matthews, & Dagher, G. K. (2007) · Management Research News · doi:10.1108/01409170710833358 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
“In a comprehensive meta-analysis, Wood et al. (1987)”
Background
Goal setting, planning, and organizational performance: An experimental simulation
Smith, K. G., Locke, E. A., & Barry, D. (1990) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/0749-5978(90)90025-5 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
The nascent entrepreneurship hub: goals, entrepreneurial self-efficacy and start-up outcomes
Hechavarria, D. M., Renko, M., & Matthews, C. H. (2011) · Small Business Economics · doi:10.1007/s11187-011-9355-2 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
“Fourth, goals affect action indirectly by leading to the arousal, discovery, and/or use of task-relevant knowledge and strategies (Wood et al. 1987).”
Background
The impact of job embeddedness on innovation‐related behaviors
Ng, T. W. H., & Feldman, D. C. (2010) · Human Resource Management · doi:10.1002/hrm.20390 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Advancing Theory by Assessing Boundary Conditions With Metaregression: A Critical Review and Best-Practice Recommendations
Gonzalez-Mule, E. N., & Aguinis, H. (2017) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206317710723 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Goal theory vs. control theory: Contrasting approaches to understanding work motivation
Locke, E. A. (1991) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/bf00991473 · Cited by 150 · see citing works

Goal Setting Effects on Implicit and Explicit Learning of Complex Tasks
DeShon, R. P., & Alexander, R. A. (1996) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1006/obhd.1996.0002 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
The Value of Feedback and Goal Setting Over Goal Setting Alone and Potential Moderators of this Effect: a Meta-Analysis
Neubert, M. J. (1998) · Human Performance · doi:10.1207/s15327043hup1104_2 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
A meta-analytic study of the effects of goal setting on task performance: 1966–1984
Mento, A. J., Steel, R. P., & Karren, R. J. (1987) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/0749-5978(87)90045-8 · Cited by 579 · see citing works
How goals affect performance : task complexity as a moderator on the cognitive processes of goal-setting
Wai-hung, C. (1993)
The interactive effects of achievement goals and task complexity on enjoyment, mental focus, and effort
Donovan, J. J., Hafsteinsson, L. G., & Lorenzet, S. J. (2018) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.12498 · Cited by 11 · see citing works

Authors: Wood, R. E., Mento, A. J., & Locke, E. A.
Affiliations: UNSW Sydney (AU)
ORCID: Wood, Robert E.
Locke, Edwin A.
Venue: Journal of Applied Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1987-08
Volume: 72
Issue: 3
Pages: 416-425
ISSN: 0021-9010 (ISSN-L)
1939-1854
DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.72.3.416
OpenAlex: W2067506429
Cited by: 598
References: 107
Citations by year: 2026: 4 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 13 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 64 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 21 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 29 · 2012: 25
FWCI: 17.14
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Applied Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Employee Performance and Motivation
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
Keywords: goal setting, task complexity, goal difficulty, goal specificity, task performance, motivation, moderator effects, reaction time, brainstorming, research productivity

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Task complexity as a moderator of goal effects: a meta-analysis

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