The difference isn't black and white: Stereotype threat and the race gap on raven's advanced progressive matrices.

“box indicating their race or gender prior to taking a standardized test (see, for example, Bonous-Hammarth, 2000; Brown and Day, 2006; Dar-Nimrod and Heine, 2006; Spencer et al., 1999; Steele, 1992; Steele and Aronson, 1995; Steele et al., 2002).”

“For example, research has repeatedly shown that describing a test as a measure of intellectual ability can hurt the performance of members of groups stereotyped to lack that ability (e.g., Brown & Day, 2006; Croizet & Claire, 1998; Hess, Auman, & Colcombe, 2003; Spencer, Steele, & Quinn, 1999).”

“Although SAT scholars have noted the need to examine both subtle stereotype activation (relatively common in society) and explicit activation (comparatively uncommon) in the same study ( Brown & Day, 2006; Shih et al., 2002), such research is rare.”

“Some research has suggested that stereotype threat is the default state of normal test taking for stereotyped groups and that no special effort is needed to create it in the laboratory; instead, effort is needed to take it away (e.g., Brown & Day, 2006).”

“Other studies have shown the relevance of stereotype threat by showing that interventions that reduce stereotype threat also produce significant reductions of performance gaps relative to control groups (Brown & Day, 2006; Cohen et al., 2006; McGlone & Aronson, 2006).”

“Extensive social psychological research on stereotyping suggests that the answer is likely to be, ‘‘yes’’ ( Brown & Day, 2006; Cohen & Garcia, 2005; Cole, Matheson, & Anisman, 2007; Spencer, et al. 1999; Steele, 1997; Steele & Aronson, 1995).”

“As a consequence, researchers have hypothesized that such indicatorsmay, on average, underestimate the ability of people from negatively stereotyped groups, as compared with people from nonstereotyped groups (Brown & Day 2006).”

“ST can be triggered by features of the task itself, such as having students report demographic information before a test or activity (Steele and Aronson 1995) or by describing the task in a stereotype consistent manner (Brown and Day 2006; Huguet and Regner 2009).”

“Indeed, in line with Brown and Day (2006) , we believe that several studies that found no evidence of stereotype threat in an applied setting (e.g., Mayer & Hanges, 2003; Sackett, Hardison, & Cullen, 2004) lacked a truly non evaluative condition.”

“Particularly concerning was the finding that the performance of the Black students also dropped when the test was described using the standardized text suggested to accompany the test (Brown & Day, 2006; see also Désert et al., 2009).”

“See Brown and Day (2004) and Sackett, Schmitt, Ellingson, and Kabin (2001) for”

“Brown and Day (2006), “the extent to which stereotype threat influences predictive validity will depend on the degree to which stereotype threat differentially influences predictor and criterion scores” (p.”

“A few studies have noted this effect (Brown and Day 2006; Marx and Goff 2005; Steele and Aronson 1995), while others have found that although the difference is lessened under reduced threat conditions, it is not nullified (Mayer and Hanges 2003; McKay et al. 2002).”

“In fact, research and theory suggest that fluid tests may still demonstrate group differences despite the fact that they are nonverbal assessments (Brown & Day, 2006; Higgins & Sivers, 1958; Irwing & Lynn, 2005; Lynn & Irwing, 2004; Raven, 1989; Rushton, Skuy, & Fridjohn; 2002; Tulkin & Newbrough,…”

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“For this reason, it is difficult to overstate the significance of studies demonstrating the decisive influence of context and transient psychological threats on academic performance (e.g., Brown & Day, 2006; Steele, 1988; Walton & Spencer, 2009).”

“Extensive research has shown that various selection instruments are discriminatory toward minorities (Arvey & Landon, 1992; Brown & Day, 2006).”

“For example, Brown and Day (2006) found a meaningful difference in the scores of African American participants when they accounted for stereotype threat.”

“Indeed, stereotype threat (Brown & Day, 2006; Steele, 1997; Steele & Aronson, 1995) and race-based traumatic stress (Mental Health America, n.d.) serve as useful examples here of the pernicious impact of the persistent, negative, racist narratives on the internal processes of minoritized students.”

“Most research in this area has sought to understand differences in academic performance on tasks that are cognitively challenging, including traditional IQ tests (Brown & Day, 2006).”

“Such difficulties are also often found on performance on the so-called culture reduced tests of cognitive ability (e.g. Cattell, 1979), where one can often witness a performance gap between dominant and minority culture students (e.g. Brown & Day, 2006).”

“The second study is by Brown and Day (2006) who conducted an experiment on the effects of stereotype on Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM) of African American undergraduates.”

“Participants in all conditions were placed under stereotype threat: They were given an abstract reasoning test [the Ravens Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM)] introduced as a difficult ‘puzzle’ task [23].”

“This is not surprising, given the fact that especially in contexts of subtle stereo‐ type activation, individuals assimilate to group-level expectations (Brown & Day, 2006; Cadinu et al., 2005; Steele & Aronson, 1995).”

“Research has suggested that stereotype threat activation plays a role in underperformance for black participants on problem solving tasks, particularly regarding accuracy on these tasks (Brown & Day, 2006; Quinn & Spencer, 2001).”

“R. P. Brown and Day (2006) even argued the differences in outcomes among ethnicities and races may reflect stereotypes and do not originate from the test itself.”

“These initial studies have been criticised, however, for statistically controlling for prior achievement; an approach that exacerbates performance decrements in the stereotype threat condition and reduces them in the control condition (see Brown & Day, 2006; Sacket, Hardison, & Cullen, 2004).”

“This ultimately contributes to Black students’ consistent underperformance relative to their White peers (Brown & Day, 2006; Walton & Spencer, 2009).”

“For example, the broader stereotype threat literature recommends applying a ‘‘mitigating factors’’ approach whereby the threat is reduced through education and test performance is not impaired.(7,8) Whether or not this approach would work in the mTBI DT context has yet to be demonstrated.”

“In people, for example, crucial research on stereotype threat has observed how stereotypes about race and gender can influence a person’s performance on the exact same test depending on whether they are told it is a “test” or a “puzzle” (23).”

“…of social psychology and focused on healthy individuals, but less in people with malignancy who are at high risk of behavioural symptoms, and the negative effect of stereotype threat has been reported widely (O’Brien & Crandall 2003, Brown & Day 2006, Hively & El-Alayli 2014, Krendl et al. 2015).”

“But even in the laboratory, there is little if any evidence to suggest that eliminating stereotype threat will reduce the average difference between African Americans and White Americans typically found on tests of cognitive ability (e.g., Sackett et al. 2001, 2004; cf., Brown and Day 2006 ).”

“In response to a biological claim, scientists questioned the validity of the argument that racial variation in cognitive performance is caused by biology (Nisbett, 1998, 2005; Nisbett et al., 2012a) and genetics (Brown & Day, 2006; Jensen, 1976; Nisbett et al., 2012b; Rushton & Jensen, 2005).”

“Following prior research (Brown & Day, 2006; Nguyen & Ryan, 2008; Steele, 1997; Steele & Aronson, 1995), the experimenter, a European American male, created the stereotype threat condition by telling participants, “This task is a standardized critical thinking task which is evaluative of your…”

“In terms of theory, several studies indicate that this situational predicament is the default state of affairs for stigmatized individuals in a testing context (Brown & Day, 2006; Inzlicht & Kang, 2010).”

“This finding agrees with a series of studies in which the CPM proved to possess construct validity across various populations (ethnic and/or minority groups) under specific conditions (e.g., low threat; see Brown and Day 2006).”

“…varies across research areas, but this is often desired in fields such as social cognition (e.g., research on stereotype threat in reasoning tasks; e.g., Brown & Day, 2006; Régner, Smeding, Gimmig, Thinus-Blanc, Monteil, & Huguet, 2010), and may affect which strategies participants elect to use.”

“To illustrate this, let us consider data from Brown and Day (2006) , who”

“…2003 ; Stone and McWhinnie 2008 ), all of which can result in reduced performance and widening achievement gaps between groups (Beilock et al. 2007 ; Brown and Day 2006 ; Cadinu et al. 2005 ; Keller and Dauenheimer 2003 ; O’Brien and Crandall 2003 ; Schmader and Johns 2003 ; Steele and Aronson…”

“Examples for ethnic minorities include verbal abilities (especially for ethnic minorities for whom English might not be their first language; Hosoda & Stone-Romero, 2010 ) and general cognitive ability (Brown & Day, 2006 ).”

“…in typical stereotype threat situations range in modifiability from golf putting (Beilock & McConnell, 2004; Stone et al., 1999) to standardized IQ test performance (Brown & Day, 2006; Mayer & Hanges, 2003) and stereotype threat has been shown to impact skills and domains across this spectrum.”

“Subsequent studies (Brown and Day 2006) did indeed demonstrate that the removal of stereotype threat, with no covariate adjustment across conditions, also accounted for the racial gap between African-Americans’ and Whites’ performance on other challenging cognitive tasks (e.”

“Women were given 20 min to complete 25 items from the Ravens Advanced Progressive Matrices (see Brown & Day, 2006).”

“…consequences of stereotype threat include an increased use of self-defeating strategies by stigmatized groups, including practicing less for a task and discounting tasks (Steele & Aronson, 1995; Good, Aronson, & Harder, 2008; Keller, 2007; Good, Aronson, & Inzlicht, 2003; and Brown & Day, 2006).”

“Controlling for basic aptitude, African Americans who read the stereotypeinvalidating instruction performed as well as white Americans and substantially better than African Americans who thought that the task was diagnostic of intellectual abilities (cf., Aronson et al. 2002; Brown and Day 2006).”

“Brown and Day (2006) demonstrated that differences in GMA scores due to stereotype threat were eliminated as a result of a change to test instructions (i.”

“…threat and future directions Despite the success of stereotype threat research over the years, researchers have argued that studies have been based upon small and non-representative samples in laboratory settings, thus, raising concerns about the theory’s external validity (Brown & Day, 2006).”