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Cited by 366Education, Achievement, and GiftednessSocial and Intergroup PsychologyCareer Development and Diversity

Latent Ability: Grades and Test Scores Systematically Underestimate the Intellectual Ability of Negatively Stereotyped Students

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Walton, Gregory M., Spencer, Steven J.·2009·Psychological Science
DOI 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02417.x
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Abstract

Past research has assumed that group differences in academic performance entirely reflect genuine differences in ability. In contrast, extending research on stereotype threat, we suggest that standard measures of academic performance are biased against non-Asian ethnic minorities and against women in quantitative fields. This bias results not from the content of performance measures, but from the context in which they are assessed-from psychological threats in common academic environments, which depress the performances of people targeted by negative intellectual stereotypes. Like the time of a track star running into a stiff headwind, such performances underestimate the true ability of stereotyped students. Two meta-analyses, combining data from 18,976 students in five countries, tested this latent-ability hypothesis. Both meta-analyses found that, under conditions that reduce psychological threat, stereotyped students performed better than nonstereotyped students at the same level of past performance. We discuss implications for the interpretation of and remedies for achievement gaps.

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  • Estimates based on effect sizes from two meta-analyses suggest threat accounts for 17-28% of the White-Black attainment gap on SATs, 23-39% of the White-Latino SAT attainment gap, and 57-94% of the gender gap on SAT mathematics in the United States.

    “Indeed, estimates based on effect sizes derived from two meta-analyses incorporating data from nearly 19,000 individuals suggests that threat accounts for 17-28% of the White-Black attainment gap on SATs, 23-39% of the White-Latino SAT attainment gap, and 57-94% of the gender gap on SAT mathematics in the United States (Walton & Spencer, 2009;Walton et al., 2013).”

    From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Walton & Spencer, 2009

  • Stereotype threat increases anxiety and worry and uses up cognitive resources that would otherwise be dedicated to performance.

    “This-like social identity threat more generally-increases anxiety and worry and uses up precious cognitive resources that would otherwise be dedicated to performance (Inzlicht et al., 2011;S. J. Spencer et al., 2016;Walton & Spencer, 2009).”

    From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Walton & Spencer, 2009

  • Together, the results of these field experiments suggest that affirmation removed a barrier that prevented the full expression of students' potential.

    “Together, the results of these field experiments suggest that affirmation removed a barrier that prevented the full expression of students' potential (Walton & Spencer 2009).”

    From The Psychology of Change: Self-Affirmation and Social Psychological Intervention (2014) · cites this paper as Walton & Spencer 2009

  • When social psychological interventions raise the performance of minority undergraduates, this suggests that the collegiate programs that promoted their recruitment and retention were successful, as the performance of students begins to reflect their acquired aptitude.

    “When social psychological interventions raise the performance of minority undergraduates, this suggests that the collegiate programs that promoted their recruitment and retention were successful, as the performance of students begins to reflect their acquired aptitude (Steele 2010, Walton & Spencer 2009).”

    From The Psychology of Change: Self-Affirmation and Social Psychological Intervention (2014) · cites this paper as Walton & Spencer 2009

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Authors
Walton, G. M., & Spencer, S. J.
Affiliations
  • Stanford University (US)
  • University of Waterloo (CA)
Corresponding author
Walton, Gregory M.
ORCID
Venue
Psychological Science
Publisher
SAGE Publications
Published
2009-09
Volume
20
Issue
9
Pages
1132-1139
ISSN
  • 0956-7976 (ISSN-L)
  • 1467-9280
DOI
10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02417.x
OpenAlex
W1985701917
Cited by
366
References
3
Citations by year
2026: 7 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 31 · 2019: 34 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 23 · 2016: 25 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 23 · 2012: 15
FWCI
19.47
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations
  • Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
  • Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues
  • National Academy of Education
  • Society for Personality and Social Psychology
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
  • Social Sciences › Safety Research › Career Development and Diversity
Keywords
stereotype threat, latent ability, academic performance, achievement gap, psychological threat, test bias
MeSH terms
Achievement, Adolescent, Aptitude, Child, Educational Measurement, Female, Humans, Individuality, Intelligence, Male, Self Concept, Sex Factors, Social Environment, Social Identification, Stereotyping, Students, Underachievement, Bias, Black People, White People, Young Adult

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