The DOI matches its Crossref record; 31 of the 31 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Efficacy of applied relaxation and cognitive-behavioral therapy in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder
Abstract
Nondirective (ND), applied relaxation (AR), and cognitive behavioral (CBT) therapies for generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) were compared. The latter 2 conditions were generally equivalent in outcome but superior to ND at postassessment. The 3 conditions did not differ on several process measures, and ND created the greatest depth of emotional processing. Follow-up results indicated losses in gains in ND, maintained gains in the other 2 conditions, especially CBT, and highest endstate functioning for CBT. AR and CBT thus contain active ingredients in the treatment of GAD; support exists for further development of imagery exposure methods or cognitive therapy because of their likely role in promoting maintenance of change with this disorder. Expectancy for improvement was also associated with outcome, suggesting the need for further research on this construct for understanding the nature of GAD and its amelioration.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Borkovec and Costello (1993) found that a reflective listening condition was significantly superior to cognitive therapy and SCD treatments on objectively coded ratings of depth of emotional processing (using the Experiencing Scale (Klein, Mathieu Coughlan, & Kiesler, 1986; Klein, Mathieu, Gendlin, & Kiesler, 1969), one of the most reliable methods of assessing change process in experiential ther”
From A novel theory of experiential avoidance in generalized anxiety disorder: A review and synthesis of research supporting a contrast avoidance model of worry (2011) · cites this paper as Borkovec & Costello, 1993
In the citing paper
“Also, as noted earlier, depth of emotional processing in response to SCD was objectively coded as inferior to reflective listening (Borkovec & Costello, 1993), suggesting that SCD may not be optimal for emotional processing.”
From A novel theory of experiential avoidance in generalized anxiety disorder: A review and synthesis of research supporting a contrast avoidance model of worry (2011) · cites this paper as Borkovec & Costello, 1993
In the citing paper
“For example, randomized controlled trials demonstrated that AR was more efficacious than a nondirective, reflective listening therapy (Borkovec & Costello, 1993) and roughly as efficacious as cognitive therapy (Arntz, 2003; Öst & Breitholtz, 2000), cognitive behavioral therapy (Borkovec & Costello, 1993; Dugas et al., 2010), and worry exposure (Hoyer et al., 2009) in treating GAD.”
From A randomized clinical trial comparing an acceptance-based behavior therapy to applied relaxation for generalized anxiety disorder (2013) · cites this paper as Borkovec & Costello, 1993
In the citing paper
“For example, randomized controlled trials demonstrated that AR was more efficacious than a nondirective, reflective listening therapy (Borkovec & Costello, 1993) and roughly as efficacious as cognitive therapy (Arntz, 2003; Öst & Breitholtz, 2000), cognitive behavioral therapy (Borkovec & Costello, 1993; Dugas et al., 2010), and worry exposure (Hoyer et al., 2009) in treating GAD.”
From A randomized clinical trial comparing an acceptance-based behavior therapy to applied relaxation for generalized anxiety disorder (2013) · cites this paper as Borkovec & Costello, 1993
In the citing paper
“Borkovec and Costello (1993) found 44% of individuals receiving AR met criteria for high end state functioning at post-treatment”
From A randomized clinical trial comparing an acceptance-based behavior therapy to applied relaxation for generalized anxiety disorder (2013) · cites this paper as Borkovec and Costello (1993)
In the citing paper
“As a result, our AR outcomes were notably stronger than those found in previous trials.”
From A randomized clinical trial comparing an acceptance-based behavior therapy to applied relaxation for generalized anxiety disorder (2013) · cites this paper as Borkovec and Costello (1993)
In the citing paper
“AR has been shown to be more effective than a nondirective therapy (Borkovec & Costello, 1993)”
From A Fresh Look at Potential Mechanisms of Change in Applied Relaxation for Generalized Anxiety Disorder: A Case Series (2012) · cites this paper as Borkovec & Costello, 1993
In the citing paper
“AR is aimed at teaching clients to notice the earliest signs of anxiety and to react with a different response, namely relaxation, before the cycle of anxiety has a chance to strengthen.”
From A Fresh Look at Potential Mechanisms of Change in Applied Relaxation for Generalized Anxiety Disorder: A Case Series (2012) · cites this paper as Borkovec & Costello, 1993
In the citing paper
“These responses are proposed to develop over time, with each channel amplifying the others, increasing the intensity of the anxious response.”
From A Fresh Look at Potential Mechanisms of Change in Applied Relaxation for Generalized Anxiety Disorder: A Case Series (2012) · cites this paper as Borkovec & Costello, 1993
In the citing paper
“As described in Borkovec and Costello (1993), AR is based on the premise that anxiety involves an interacting system of cognitive, physiological, affective, and behavioral responses.”
From A Fresh Look at Potential Mechanisms of Change in Applied Relaxation for Generalized Anxiety Disorder: A Case Series (2012) · cites this paper as Borkovec & Costello, 1993
In the citing paper
“The effect of AR on GAD symptoms in the current trial was larger than in previous trials (Borkovec & Costello, 1993; Wells et al., 2010), possibly due to the extended length of the treatment and/or the emphasis on recognizing tension and deploying relaxation skills in the moment.”
From Interpersonal Problems, Mindfulness, and Therapy Outcome in an Acceptance-Based Behavior Therapy for Generalized Anxiety Disorder (2015) · cites this paper as Borkovec & Costello, 1993
In the citing paper
“In looking at longer term follow-up, the Cuijpers et al. (2014) meta-analysis concluded that CBT may be effective and may be more effective than applied relaxation (AR) in the long-term based on the four studies reporting 12-month follow-up assessments (Barlow, Brown, & Rapee, 1992; Borkovec & Costello, 1993; Dugas et al., 2010; Öst & Breitholtz, 2000).”
From Do treatment responders maintain their gains following a randomized clinical trial comparing an acceptance-based behavior therapy to applied relaxation for generalized anxiety disorder? (2025) · cites this paper as Borkovec & Costello, 1993
In the citing paper
“The PSWQ has been reported to discriminate patients with GAD from community controls and patients with other anxiety disorders (Brown et al. 1992) and has demonstrated sensitivity to change across both 6-week and 12-week therapeutic interventions for GAD (Borkovec and Costello 1993).”
From CALM Pregnancy: results of a pilot study of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy for perinatal anxiety (2014) · cites this paper as Borkovec and Costello 1993
In the citing paper
“The CBT protocol utilized in this study is based on elements of prior CBT protocols for GAD in younger adults (Borkovec & Costello, 1993; Craske, Barlow, & O’Leary, 1992) and modified to include a flexible delivery format to meet the needs of older adults in primary care medical settings (Stanley, Diefenbach, & Hopko, 2004).”
From Cognitive-behavioral therapy for late-life anxiety: Similarities and differences between Veteran and community participants (2015) · cites this paper as Borkovec & Costello, 1993
In the citing paper
“As reflected in our results, high remission rates of anxiety symptoms in GAD were outlined following CBT interventions (Borkovec and Costello, 1993; Kim et al., 2009).”
From Standard CBT versus integrative and multimodal CBT assisted by virtual-reality for generalized anxiety disorder (2022) · cites this paper as Borkovec and Costello, 1993
In the citing paper
“Overall, the results show that CBT and AR were equivalent at posttreatment and that both conditions led to the maintenance of treatment gains, with some evidence of further gains in CBT.”
From A randomized clinical trial of cognitive-behavioral therapy and applied relaxation for adults with generalized anxiety disorder. (2010) · cites this paper as Borkovec and Costello (1993)
In the citing paper
“To our knowledge, Borkovec and Costello (1993) are the only researchers who have compared a GAD-specific form of cognitive-behavioral therapy or CBT (based on the avoidance model of worry) to AR alone.”
From A randomized clinical trial of cognitive-behavioral therapy and applied relaxation for adults with generalized anxiety disorder. (2010) · cites this paper as Borkovec and Costello (1993)
In the citing paper
“Thus, only the Borkovec and Costello study allows for a direct comparison of GAD-specific CBT and AR.”
From A randomized clinical trial of cognitive-behavioral therapy and applied relaxation for adults with generalized anxiety disorder. (2010) · cites this paper as Borkovec and Costello (1993)
In the citing paper
“At the very least, the data suggest that AR leads to the maintenance of treatment gains following treatment, which is in line with previous clinical trials of AR for GAD (e.g., Arntz, 2003; Barlow et al., 1992; Borkovec & Costello, 1993; Öst & Breitholtz, 2000).”
From A randomized clinical trial of cognitive-behavioral therapy and applied relaxation for adults with generalized anxiety disorder. (2010) · cites this paper as Borkovec & Costello, 1993
In the citing paper
“These finding are somewhat at odds with those of Borkovec and Costello (1993), who found evidence for the superiority of CBT over AR at 12-month follow-up.”
From A randomized clinical trial of cognitive-behavioral therapy and applied relaxation for adults with generalized anxiety disorder. (2010) · cites this paper as Borkovec and Costello (1993)
Citations
Cites
An inventory for measuring depression
BECK, A. T. (1961) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1961.01710120031004 · Cited by 38,032
Hamilton, M. (1960) · Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp.23.1.56 · Cited by 32,817
(1970) · Cited by 24,983
The assessment of anxiety states by rating
HAMILTON, M. (1959) · British Journal of Medical Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8341.1959.tb00467.x · Cited by 11,455
Development and validation of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire
Meyer, T. J., Miller, M. L., Metzger, R. L., & Borkovec, T. D. (1990) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(90)90135-6 · Cited by 5,099
Self-citationA Rating Instrument For Anxiety Disorders
Zung, W. W. K. (1971) · Psychosomatics · doi:10.1016/s0033-3182(71)71479-0 · Cited by 4,578
(1985) · Cited by 2,882
The psychotherapeutic process: A research handbook.
Greenberg, L. S., & Pinsof, W. M. (1986) · Cited by 1,386
Fear reduction and fear behavior: Problems in treating a construct
Lang, P. J. (1968) · Research in psychotherapy. · doi:10.1037/10546-004 · Cited by 989
Psychometric properties of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire in a clinical anxiety disorders sample
Brown, T. A., Antony, M. M., & Barlow, D. H. (1992) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(92)90093-v · Cited by 812
(1962) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10591-000 · Cited by 717
Applied relaxation: Description of a coping technique and review of controlled studies
Öst, L.-G. (1987) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(87)90017-9 · Cited by 605
Systematic desensitization and nonspecific treatment effects: A methodological evaluation.
Kazdin, A. E., & Wilcoxon, L. A. (1976) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.83.5.729 · Cited by 416
Butler, G., Fennell, M., Robson, P., & Gelder, M. (1991) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.59.1.167 · Cited by 365 · cited 1×
“development. Butler et al. (1991) provided potential clues in their clinical and empirical observations that GAD clients show characteristic demoralization, lack of confidence, and fear of losing control.”
BackgroundSystematic desensitization as training in self-control.
Goldfried, M. R. (1971) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0031974 · Cited by 338
Klein, M. H., Mathieu-Coughlan, P., & Kiesler, D. J. (1986) · Cited by 279
Chronic anxiety : generalized anxiety disorder and mixed anxiety-depression
Rapee, R. M., & Barlow, D. H. (1991) · Guilford Press eBooks · Cited by 268
Relaxation-induced anxiety: Paradoxical anxiety enhancement due to relaxation training.
Heide, F. J., & Borkovec, T. D. (1983) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.51.2.171 · Cited by 223
Self-citationRelaxation-induced anxiety: Paradoxical anxiety enhancement due to relaxation training
Heide, F. J., & Borkovec, T. D. (1983) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.51.2.171 · Cited by 223
Self-citationBehavioral treatment of generalized anxiety disorder
Barlow, D. H., Rapee, R. M., & Brown, T. A. (1992) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(05)80221-7 · Cited by 221
Tucker, L. R., Damarin, F. L., & Messick, S. (1966) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/bf02289517 · Cited by 207
Interrater agreement for journal manuscript reviews.
Whitehurst, G. J. “. (1984) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.39.1.22 · Cited by 189
(1991) · Cited by 178
Self-citationBorkovec, T. D., & Mathews, A. (1988) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.56.6.877 · Cited by 177
Self-citationPanic and generalized anxiety disorders: Nature and treatment
Barlow, D. H., Cohen, A. S., Waddell, M. T., Vermilyea, B. B., Klosko, J. S., Blanchard, E. B., & Nardo, P. A. D. (1984) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7894(84)80048-9 · Cited by 175
Borkovec, T. D., Mathews, A., Chambers, A., Ebrahimi, S., Lytle, R. A., & Nelson, R. (1987) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.55.6.883 · Cited by 151
Self-citationPsychotherapists in Clinical Practice: Cognitive and Behavioral Perspectives
Jacobson, N. S., & Dryden, W. (1988) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/0889-8391.2.4.284 · Cited by 141
The Relationship Inventory now: Issues and advances in theory, method, and use.
Barrett‐Lennard, G. T. (1986) · Murdoch University Research Portal · Cited by 139
Anxiety Management for Persistent Generalised Anxiety
Butler, G., Cullington, A., Hibbert, G. A., Klimeš, I., & Gelder, M. (1987) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.151.4.535 · Cited by 130
Generalised anxiety: A controlled treatment study
Blowers, C. M., Cobb, J. P., & Mathews, A. (1987) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(87)90057-x · Cited by 90
Fodor, I. G. (1987) · Cited by 5
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The empirical status of cognitive-behavioral therapy: A review of meta-analyses
Butler, A. C., Chapman, J. E., Forman, E. M., & Beck, A. T. (2006) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2005.07.003 · Cited by 3,215
Psychometric properties of the credibility/expectancy questionnaire
Devilly, G. J., & Borkovec, T. D. (2000) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0005-7916(00)00012-4 · Cited by 2,295
Self-citationEmpirically supported psychological interventions: Controversies and evidence
Chambless, D. L., & Ollendick, T. H. (2001) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.685 · Cited by 2,097
A cognitive-motivational analysis of anxiety.
Mogg, K., & Bradley, B. P. (1998) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(98)00063-1 · Cited by 1,642
Hoffman, S. G., & Smits, J. A. J. (2008) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.v69n0415 · Cited by 1,420
Metadata
- Authors
- Borkovec, T. D., & Costello, E.
- Affiliations
- Pennsylvania State University (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
- Published
- 1993
- Volume
- 61
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 611-619
- ISSN
- 0022-006X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2117
- OpenAlex
- W2151361778
- Cited by
- 756
- References
- 31
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 30 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 26 · 2016: 25 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 36 · 2013: 29 · 2012: 34
- FWCI
- 13.48
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH039172, MH-39172)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychotherapy Techniques and Applications
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychological Treatments and Assessments
- Keywords
- generalized anxiety disorder, applied relaxation, cognitive behavioral therapy, non-directive therapy, treatment outcomes, maintenance of change, emotional processing, treatment expectancy, psychotherapy comparison
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Anxiety Disorders, Female, Humans, Male, Medical Records, Person-Centered Psychotherapy, Relaxation Therapy, Severity of Illness Index, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, Treatment Outcome
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
