Assessment, enhancement, and verification determinants of the self-evaluation process.

“Self-enhancement is a psychological principle whereby individuals favor positive stimuli that augment self-conceptions and protect against negative evaluations of the self (Sedikides, 1993).”

“Contrary to the widespread notion that people’s self-views are clouded by positive illusions (e.g., Baumeister, 1998; Epley & Dunning, 2000; Sedikides, 1993; Taylor & Brown, 1988), here we report findings showing that people sometimes underestimate their own morality.”

“They might simply think less carefully about the negative traits, or use self-serving biases and other enhancement strategies to perceive those traits as less negative or less meaningful (Alicke & Sedikides, 2009; Bradley, 1978; Kunda, 1987; Sedikides, 1993).”

“People use a multitude of strategies to maintain or enhance their overall feelings about the self (Baumeister, 1998; Crocker & Major, 1989; Sedikides, 1993; Taylor & Brown, 1988; Tesser, 1986).”

“In contrast to self-verification, whereby individuals attempt to affirm both positive and negative aspects of their identity (Swann, 1983), self-enhancement motive drives individuals to promote only the positive aspects of identity and avoid the negative ones (Sedikides, 1993).”

“Considerable research indicates that self-protective motives are chronically accessible but are particularly active in the face of threat to the self (Fromkin, 1972; Sedikides, 1993; Sigall & Landy, 1973).”

“Importantinter-relatedframeworksforunderstandingtherolethat othersplayinthedevelopmentofselfhavepreviouslybeenprovidedby self-verification and self-enhancement theories (e.g., Sedikides, 1993; Swann, 1983).”

“For example, the trait friendly, the opposite of the meanness trait used in Experiments 1 through 3, has been consistently found to be central to university students’ self-conceptions (Markus, 1977; Sedikides, 1993; Sedikides & Green, 2000).”

“, selfenhancing information).([27,28,31]) Often, self-verifying and self-enhancing information are congruent.”

“for this idea comes from research results suggesting that other-relevant information is less positive than self-relevant information (Sedikides, 1993; Skowronski, Betz, Thompson, & Shannon, 1991), and negative (compared to positive) information about others requires less stimulus exposure to be”

“This is somewhat surprising considering research showing that students are often more motivated to engage in self-enhancement (striving for positive selfknowledge) than self-assessment (striving for highly accurate self-knowledge) (Sedikides, 1993).”

“People have strong motivations to maintain favorable concepts of themselves (Baumeister, 1998; Sedikides, 1993), and perhaps reducing one’s negative self-thoughts is a way of avoiding a bad view of the self (especially self-attractiveness), a motivation found to be more prevalent than claiming a good view of the self…”

“, desire to increase positive self-concept; Leary, 2007) or self-improvement (i.e., the desire to improve aspects of one's self; Sedikides, 1993; Sedikides & Hepper, 2009).”

“The findings also partially replicate Sedikides and Green’s (2000) finding that it is the negativity of the behaviours which underlies the mnemic neglect effect.”

“Sedikides ’ (1993) notion that the people seek accurate self-views in order to reduce uncertainty fi ts into this picture well.”

“In such a state of chronic epistemic confusion, individuals may experience self-evaluative motivations that prompt them to seek any and all feedback about the self, regardless of whether it verifies or contradicts existing self-views (Sedikides 1993 ).”

“As people in general try to achieve and maintain a positive self-evaluation (Sedikides, 1993) when facing with uncertainty, people usually try to find positive solutions to maintain a sense of meaning (Stillman & Baumeister, 2009).”

“Nature-related risk-taking encourages self-re fl ection and self-evaluation, building positive perceptions of self (Sedikides, 1993).”

“This motivation and corresponding behaviors are regarded as self-protection [45,46].”

“…the desire to disavow negative traits with the knowledge of possessing them, concern for self-protection/self-enhancement would often prevail over the self-assessment and self-verification motives that underlie admissions of self-negativity (Sedikides, 1993; Sedikides & Strube, 1997; Trope, 1986).”

“Early work on self-presentation found that people typically try to convey a positive image to strangers and that this strategy is often effective, as long as their claims are not implausible (Schlenker & Leary, 1982; Sedikides, 1993).”

“For example, processing of self-relevant information is also determined by selfenhancement and self-consistency motives, which, in turn, interact with structural characteristics of the self such as trait self-esteem, importance and elaboration of the affected traits, and self-discrepancy (e.g., Dauenheimer, Stahlberg,…”

“Other motivational factors may similarly spur criticism, such as being motivated to signal identity (Berendt & Uhrich, 2016; Hornsey, Oppes, & Svensson, 2002; Packer, 2008; Sedikides, 1993; Wilson & Ross, 2001) and to gain psychological leverage (Hareli & Weiner, 2002; Lyubomirsky & Ross, 1997; van de Ven, Zeelenberg,…”

“Many studies suggested that positive bias was more dominant than accurate bias (Sedikides, 1993).”

“Enquanto a autoavaliação traz várias implicações positivas para o indivíduo, pois facilita a autorregulação, fornece uma sensação de autocontinuidade, acelera o processamento de informações relevantes, é uma chave para o estabelecimento de metas, influencia a percepção social, determina a escolha do parceiro, bem como…”

“However, this should not be the case for feedback that is strongly connected to one’s future work self, because such feedback is highly instrumental for realizing one’s future work self (Sedikides, 1993).”

“For example, personal meaning is tied to high selfregard and self-enhancement motives often trump selfverification motives (i.e., positive feedback is more desirable that expected negative feedback; Sedikides, 1993).”

“For example, most people consider being trustworthy more central to their identity than being predictable (Sedikides, 1993).”

“Moreover, individuals are likely to be more committed to roles that others support and reward; social support and rewards increase selfevaluations of worth, and individuals have a self-enhancement motive (Mahajan and Rast III 2010; Sedikides 1993).”

“…( Hogg, 2006 ). his view is line with various self-concept research demonstrating ow people are motivated to possess, protect, and enhance their ositive self-concept ( Sedikides, 1993 ; Sedikides and Alicke, 2012 ; edikides and Gregg, 2008 ; Sedikides and Strube, 1997 ; Sedikides t al., 2008 ).”

“People have a fundamental desire to be liked and viewed positively (Baumeister, 1982; Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Goffman, 1959; Hill, 1987; Sedikides, 1993; Sedikides, Hoorens, & Dufner, 2015), and often give compliments to garner such favorable impressions; indeed, compliments—communicating…”

“Research in psychology suggests that people generally desire favorable feedback because such feedback enhances their self-conception and makes them feel good about themselves (Sedikides 1993, Taylor and Brown 1988).”

“EWOM soc will, therefore, be more likely as consumers seek to enhance their self-concept and to maintain and increase their levels of self-esteem (Sedikides, 1993).”

“Accordingly, individuals characteristically pursue and process information in a manner that reflects positively upon the self (Sedikides, 1993).”

“…or negative, highly diagnostic of underlying traits (i.e., central) or not (i.e., peripheral), and highly important to perform (i.e., central) or not to perform (i.e., peripheral; see Saunders, 2011, 2012, for UK populations; Sedikides, 1993, 1995; Sedikides & Green, 2000 for US populations).”

“Instead, people strive to feel certain that they have positive qualities, and, of importance, research has shown that self-esteem takes precedence over self-certainty (Sedikides, 1993).”

“These are similar to the first two games in that they require attention and inhibitory control.”

“This desire for attaining a positive self-image is a key driver of human behavior (Baumeister, 1982; Leary and Kowalski, 1990; Sedikides, 1993; Tetlock, 2002), as it can bring benefits like admiration, respect, attention by other people and personal rewards (Gilmore and Ferris, 1989; Hogan, 1982;…”

“unstable self-worth, as well as violence and anger toward those threatening the ego (20, 21).”

“long considered basic needs that drive human behavior (Sedikides, 1993; Sedikides, Gartner, & Toguchi, 2003; for meta-analysis see: van Dellen, Campbell, Hoyle, & Bradfield, 2011). Both perspectives are firmly grounded on empirical studies and currently researchers concentrate on analyzing conditions under which one o…”

“People dislike finding themselves in the unexpected situation of being unable to construct a mental image of an object on the basis of which they form an impression of themselves in a specific context (Sedikides, 1993; Sedikides & Skowronski, 1993).”

“…questioned the ability of a person to assess their own knowledge, skills and behaviors as people are predominantly motivated by the pursuit of favorable self-knowledge for self-enhancement rather than the pursuit of accurate and highly certain self-knowledge (Baumeister, 1999; Sedikes, 1993).”

“Importantly, this presupposes that the behavior actually indicates the presence or absence of the relevant attributes (i.e., diagnostic; e.g., Greve & Wentura, 2003, 2010; Sedikides, 1993).”

“Such comparisons provide a viable means to facilitate self-enhancement, congruent with people’s “desire to enhance the positivity of their self-conceptions or protect the self from negative information” (Sedikides, 1993, p. 318).”

“The PSS has good reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.84–0.86), as well as discriminant and predictive validity (Cohen et al., 1983, 1993).”

“, the pursuit of favorable self-knowledge — is the strongest motivation for self-assessment [31].”

“First, in social media engagement, people exhibit a social tendency to present a positive self-image for altruistic reasons (eg, to help others) or self-enhancement [24].”

“, “you are untrustworthy,” “you are unkind”) that will cause a major perturbation (Sedikides, 1993; Sedikides, Green, et al., 2016).”

“Nevertheless, past research that has pitted the self-enhancement motive directly against an expectancy motive (i.e., self-verification) found self-enhancement to be ascendant (Sedikides, 1993).”

“…people between young and middle age tend to believe that they are happier (Brickman, Coates & Janoff-Bulman, 1978), make more improvement (Fleeson & Heckhausen, 1997), feel better of the selves (Baumeister, Dori & Hastings, 1998; Higgins, 1996; Sedikides, 1993) than they were in the past.”

“For example, narcissism has been reliably linked with self-enhancement tendencies in much previous research (Farwell & Wohlwend-Lloyd, 1998; Miller & Campbell, 2010; Sedikides, 1993).”

“Theoretically, people with high self-esteem are thought held to have higher self-clarity because they are motivated to obtain positive information about themselves which is consistent with their self- beliefs (Sedikides, 1993).”

“High self-esteem has been linked to increased prejudice against out-groups, violence against those perceived to threaten the ego, and distortions in self-awareness (Aberson, Healy, & Romero, 2000; Baumeister, Bushman, & Campbell, 2000; Baumeister et al., 1996; Sedikides, 1993).”

“The most frequent self-evaluation motive is self-enhancement (Sedikides, 1993).”

“The self-verification motive, in order to provide a coherent self-concept and to cope with cognitive dissonances about oneself, takes into account both positive and negative identities but at the same time protects self-esteem (Sedikides, 1993).”

“People tend to have unrealistic self-awareness, but this positive illusion can be beneficial (Sedikides, 1993).”

“is typically defined as something that occurs continuously, meaning when one produces an unrealistic, positive view of the self, it is maintained for an extended period [29] and extends across all dimensions of cognition, including exaggerating potential success in the future [30], only acknowledging positive feedback…”

“Self-assessment is a process of undertaking tests or tasks, such as reflecting or asking questions, to gain an understanding of personal or organisational characteristics (Sedikides 1993).”