The DOI matches its Crossref record; 34 of the 34 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans.
Abstract
Stereotype threat is being at risk of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one's group. Studies 1 and 2 varied the stereotype vulnerability of Black participants taking a difficult verbal test by varying whether or not their performance was ostensibly diagnostic of ability, and thus, whether or not they were at risk of fulfilling the racial stereotype about their intellectual ability. Reflecting the pressure of this vulnerability, Blacks underperformed in relation to Whites in the ability-diagnostic condition but not in the nondiagnostic condition (with Scholastic Aptitude Tests controlled). Study 3 validated that ability-diagnosticity cognitively activated the racial stereotype in these participants and motivated them not to conform to it, or to be judged by it. Study 4 showed that mere salience of the stereotype could impair Blacks' performance even when the test was not ability diagnostic. The role of stereotype vulnerability in the standardized test performance of ability-stigmatized groups is discussed.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Steele & Aronson (1995) found that”
From In Pursuit of Antiracist Social Justice: Denaturalizing Whiteness in the Academic Library (2015) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“Other studies have found that bringing the social identities and/or the stereotypes of students of certain (typically low-status) groups to mind can reduce their ability and desire to learn (Lyons, Simms, Begolli, & Richland, 2018;V. J. Taylor & Walton, 2011), their motivation and persistence on academic tasks (Steele & Aronson, 1995) and, even among high achievers, their commitment to their”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“Social identity threat and/or identity incompatibility have been found to reduce the performance of Black and Latino students in U.S. schools and colleges (Chu & Brown, 2017;Gonzales, Blanton, & Williams, 2002;Steele & Aronson, 1995); students and young children of lower social class in the United States (Désert, Préaux, & Jund, 2009;B. Spencer & Castano, 2007), France (Croizet & Claire, 1998),”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“but that the performance of the Black students dropped when the test was described as assessing their intelligence and thus became relevant to the prevalent negative stereotype about their academic ability.”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“They are also thought to explain the finding that describing a test in terms that make evaluation possible-and thus the possibility of confirming the negative stereotype-also reduces performance among low-status groups (Steele & Aronson, 1995).”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“Negative stereotypes are key antecedents to threat in theories of social identity threat (especially stereotype threat; Steele & Aronson, 1995)”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“For example, one study conducted in the United States found that White students and Black students performed equally well on an intelligence test (when covariate adjusted) when the test was described as a series of puzzles”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“However, methodological and contextual accounts, such as stereotype threat (e.g., Steele & Aronson, 1995) or differential item functioning (DIF; e.g., Abad et al., 2004), suggest potential avenues through which changes to the administration of CATs could minimise mean score group differences.”
From Factors Related to Mean Score Group Differences on Cognitive Ability Tests: A Systematic Review (2025) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“However, when they removed the relevancy of the stereotype by framing the same task as an exercise of problem solving, rather than an assessment of their intellect, there was no difference in the performance of Black and White students, again controlling for initial differences in skill level.”
From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“In their influential work, Steele and Aronson (1995) showed that when the stereotype of African American intellectual inferiority was”
From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
In the citing paper
“Thinking that one is being evaluated through the lens of negative stereotypes can focus a person's attention on the negative aspects of a stereotype and serve to undermine achievement (e.g., Steele & Aronson, 1995).”
From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Steele & Aronson, 1995
Citations
Cites
(1954) · Cited by 15,935
Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change
Bandura, A. (1978) · Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0146-6402(78)90002-4 · Cited by 10,586
Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components
Devine, P. G. (1989) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.56.1.5 · Cited by 5,673
Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma.
Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.96.4.608 · Cited by 3,426
The effect of emotion on cue utilization and the organization of behavior
Easterbrook, J. A. (1959) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0047707 · Cited by 3,090 · cited 1×
“…may interfere with their performance in a variety of ways: by causing an arousal that reduces the range of cues participants are able to use (e.g., Easterbrook, 1959), or by diverting attention onto task-irrelevant worries (e.g., Sarason, 1972; Wine, 1971), by causing an interfering…”
BackgroundHow Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement
Jensen, A. (1969) · Harvard Educational Review · doi:10.17763/haer.39.1.l3u15956627424k7 · Cited by 2,907
(1980) · DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) · Cited by 1,935
Baumeister, R. F. (1984) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.46.3.610 · Cited by 1,665
Anxiety: Current Trends in Theory and Research
Spielberger, C. D. (1972) · Cited by 1,640
The trouble of thinking: Activation and application of stereotypic beliefs.
Gilbert, D. T., & Hixon, J. G. (1991) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.60.4.509 · Cited by 1,366
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 7,101–7,200 of 8,461
Motivation in Context: How Social Contexts Moderate Aspiration-Attainment Gaps
Lewis, N. A. (2017) · Deep Blue (University of Michigan)
Mentoring African American Women at Historically Black Colleges/Universities
Thomas, T. P., & Maultsby, M. L. (2018) · Advances in educational marketing, administration, and leadership book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-4071-7.ch006
Steele, C. H. (2012) · Loyola eCommons (Loyola University of Chicago)
Self-citationWong, E. G. (2018) · TSpace (University of Toronto)
Wasserberg, M. J. (2013) · Florida International University Digital Commons (Florida International University)
정극주, & Choi, H. (2007) · 한국심리학회지 사회및성격 · doi:10.21193/kjspp.2007.21.2.008
Oellerich, K. (2018) · Organisationsberatung Supervision Coaching · doi:10.1007/s11613-018-0558-0
Strategies to Empower Women in Higher Education Positions
Conway, C. S., McCrary-Quarles, A., Sims, Y., Nicholson, C. S., Ethridge, G., Priester, M., & Thompson, T. (2018) · Advances in business strategy and competitive advantage book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-5112-6.ch001
Stereotype Threat and Racial Disparities at the Front End of the Criminal Justice System
O'Toole, M. (2018) · CUNY Academic Works (City University of New York)
Developing a Framework for Assessing the Impact of Whiteness in Mathematics Education.
Battey, D., & Leyva, L. A. (2015) · Proceedings of the ... PME Conference
Berufsbiographische Akzeptanzerfahrungen und Stressempfinden
Madubuko, N. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-18236-6_23
CHAIKALIS-PETRITSIS, E. (2018) · International Journal of Language Translation and Intercultural Communication · doi:10.12681/ijltic.16451
A Decentralized Approach to Confront the Debasement of Black Male Student Athletes Who Attend PWI'S
Whitaker, & William, R. (2014)
L’erreur est utile à l’apprentissage
Bargibant, C. (2018) · Soins Cadres · doi:10.1016/j.scad.2018.06.013
Catégorisation sociopolitique et hors-groupe
Mary, N. (2018) · Emulations - Revue de sciences sociales · doi:10.14428/emulations.008.006
Handbags or hat-tricks? An exploration into female footballers’ experiences of stereotype threat
Ogdon, C. (2018) · e-space (Manchester Metropolitan University)
Alana, A. B. (2017) · KU ScholarWorks (The University of Kansas)
Perceived Self-in-Group Prototypicality and Psychological Well-being
Hoffmann, P. (2018) · ANU Open Research (Australian National University) · doi:10.25911/5d63bec3e546a
Adverse Impact and Equal Employment Opportunity Analytics
Morris, S. B., & Porter, M. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/obo/9780199846740-0153
Curiosity and Gifted Identification: A Mixed Methods Study
Hays, C. (2018) · Digital Commons - DU (University of Denver)
Stumpf, C. (2018) · Publication Server of Kaiserslautern University of Technology (Kaiserslautern University of Technology)
Predicting women's persistence in math and science-related college majors
Walker, C. (2004) · CSUSB ScholarWorks (California State University, San Bernardino)
Those Wonderful People across the Sea: Positive Out-Group Bias by Caucasians toward Asians
Leung, W. S., & Ting, S. Y. (2011) · doi:10.4087/wavx7967
Hauenstein, A. J. (2018) · Digital Commons-DePaul (DePaul University)
L’école, un immense champ de recherches pour les sciences cognitives
Combette, L. T. (2018) · La Revue de Santé Scolaire et Universitaire · doi:10.1016/j.revssu.2018.10.005
Saboshchuk, I. (2018) · CUNY Academic Works (City University of New York)
Black students “at promise” for high school graduation: a Black scholar identity scale
Brunson, C. N. (2017) · NC Digital Online Collection of Knowledge and Scholarship (The University of North Carolina at Greensboro)
Profiling Target and Potential Learners Today and into the Future
Hai-Jew, S. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-02713-1_2
Becker-McNabola, T. (2018) · NORMA
Black Leaders in Blue: The Career Path of African-American Senior Law Enforcement Leaders
Jackson, N. F. (2018) · UST Research Online (University of St. Thomas - Minnesota)
Baer, A. (2018) · uO Research (University of Ottawa) · doi:10.20381/ruor-22130
Critically Reading a Middle School STEM Project through a Gender Lens
Stribling, S. M., Berkeley, S. L., Kurz, L. A., & Colburn, A. (2019) · International Journal of Gender, Science, and Technology
The effect of subliminal self-affirmation on stereotype activationPreprint
LeBel, E. P. (2017) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/xazj6
Mapping Mindset and Academic Success Among Black Men at a Predominantly White Institution
Travers, C. S. (2018) · Advances in educational marketing, administration, and leadership book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-5990-0.ch009
Sticks, stones, & stigmas: A social-cognitive account of stereotype threat mechanisms
Philipp, M. C. (2005) · UNI ScholarWorks (University of Northern Iowa)
Effects of Stereotype Threat on Black and White Individuals’ Verbal Responses in Police Encounters
Strine, S. N. (2018) · Scholars Archive - University at Albany (University at Albany, State University of New York)
Goal orientation, ethnicity, and achievement of middle elementary students
Koehnke, C. P. (2005) · CSUSB ScholarWorks (California State University, San Bernardino)
Culturally Responsive Academic Advisement
Bowes, N.-K. E. (2017)
Noncognitive Variables for Placement: A Randomized Control Trial
Keating, K. A. (2017) · doi:10.46569/10211.3/203729
The contributions of stereotype threat research to social psychology
Pennington, C. R. (2015) · PsyPag Quarterly · doi:10.53841/bpspag.2015.1.97.10
McGowan, M. K. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198829706.003.0005
McGowan, M. K. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198829706.003.0006
Race, Speech, and Free Speech Law
McGowan, M. K. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198829706.003.0007
Gender-Based Stereotype Threat and Competitive Interactive Games
Robbins, P. P. (2014) · doi:10.58809/oymt6489
Gendered and Racial Microaggressions in STEM
Rockinson‐Szapkiw, A. J., & Wade‐Jaimes, K. (2019) · Advances in early childhood and K-12 education · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-7814-7.ch006
Privilege as a Blind Spot to Understanding Struggle
Harrison, L. M. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-13012-1_2
McGowan, M. K. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198829706.003.0004
On Differences Between Standard and Conversational Exercitives
McGowan, M. K. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198829706.003.0003
Black Graduate Students’ Experiences of Stress and Coping
Blanchard, S. J. (2018) · ScholarWorks - WMU (Western Michigan University)
DiMenichi, B. C. (2018) · doi:10.7282/t35q50hh
Okabe, M. (2019) · Institutional Repositories DataBase (IRDB) · doi:10.20561/00050664
A influência do género dos gestores das microempresas na utilidade atribuída à contabilidade
Gouveia, H., Fernandes, J. S., Gonçalves, C., & Gonçalves, G. (2018) · Revista de gestão dos países de língua portuguesa · doi:10.12660/rgplp.v17n1.2018.78237
Lee, J. D., & Stow, C. (2004) · San José State University ScholarWorks (San Jose State University)
Challenges and successes of African American males in the health professions
Stavropoulos, K. R. (2014) · MOspace Institutional Repository (University of Missouri)
Moving Toward Culturally Restorative Teaching Approaches
Revell, E. D. M. (2018)
The Mitigation of Stereotype Threat Through Embodied Cogition
van Govan, D. (2018)
Feeling Stereotyped and its Effects on Investment Decisions
이경미 (2018) · Seoul Journal of Business · doi:10.35152/snusjb.2018.24.1.001
Glynn, M. (2013) · BCU Open Access Repository (Birmingham City University)
Sekely, A. W. (2018) · TSpace (University of Toronto)
Teachers’ practices that contribute to the success of African American males
Abner, M. B. (2017)
Jang, S. T. (2018) · University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota)
HipHopathy, A Socio-Curricular Study of Introductory Computer Science
Miller, O. (2015) · eScholarship (California Digital Library)
Bwarleling, T. H. (2019) · Jurnal Akuntansi Bisnis · doi:10.30813/jab.v12i1.1512
LaViscount, D. F. (2019) · ScholarWorks @ The University of New Orleans (The University of New Orleans) · doi:10.13140/rg.2.2.11493.35046
Louie, N. L. (2015) · eScholarship (California Digital Library)
Bartanen, B. (2018) · 2018 APPAM Fall Research Conference: Evidence for Action: Encouraging Innovation and Improvement
Activation of social stereotypes and performance in an exam test
Franěk, M., & Strnadová, V. (2012) · e-Pedagogium · doi:10.5507/epd.2012.003
Experiences of Science Education Graduate Students in the Critical Voices Classroom
Mangione, L. M. (2019) · ProQuest Demo Repository · doi:10.7916/d8-n90x-7a94
Women in Science: Disaggregating Between- and Within-Person Effects Using a Novel Modeling Framework
Burfeind, C. (2019) · Carolina Digital Repository (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) · doi:10.17615/hwbr-3f46
Going Solo as a Black Representative
Tyson, J. (2018)
Increasing student engagement in math placement and preparationPreprint
Lewis, D. (2019) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1907.00585
Academic Race and Gender Stereotypes and Adolescents’ Self-Perceptions
Skinner, O. D. (2019) · Carolina Digital Repository (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) · doi:10.17615/8c9a-rv97
Intersectional disparities in HIV testing among male youth in the U.S.
Ramachandran, D. V. (2016)
An annotated discussion of a panel presentation on improving diversity in mathematics
Espinosa, A. (2019) · Contemporary mathematics - American Mathematical Society · doi:10.1090/conm/732/14795
Rudolph, A., Basri, G., Agüeros, M. A., Bertschinger, E., Coble, K., Donahue, M. H., Monkiewicz, J., Speck, A. K., Ivie, R. L., Pfund, C., et al. (2019) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1907.06769
“Where mediocrity is tolerated”—Rugby Sevens and the management of diversity in South African rugby
Cros, B. (2013) · Les Cahiers d Afrique de lEst · doi:10.4000/eastafrica.410
Jones, G. P. (2018) · Journal of International Crisis and Risk Communication Research
The Ecology of Educational Attainment: Resilience Among Black High School Students
Davis, J. (2018) · Digital Commons-DePaul (DePaul University)
Stereotype Threat and STEM Self-Perceptions of Saudi College Women
Omair, A. H. (2019) · Digital Commons-DePaul (DePaul University)
Gay And Lesbian Discrimination In The Workplace: The Role Of Agentic And Communal Trait Expectations
Krenn, D. R. (2019) · Human Biology
Occupational Stress and Well-Being of Persuasion Agents
Wilson, A. E., & Darke, P. R. (2019) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s1479-355520190000017003
Social Cognition in African American Men: The Roles of Experimenter Race and Perceived Racism
Nagendra, A. (2019) · Carolina Digital Repository (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) · doi:10.17615/65g4-8365
Lekomo, O. (2018) · Unisa Institutional Repository (University of South Africa)
African American Stories: “To be self-sufficient and responsible in society”
Hadjiyanni, T. (2019) · Palgrave Macmillan US eBooks · doi:10.1057/978-1-137-59957-5_7
Metadata
- Authors
- Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1995-11
- Volume
- 69
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 797-811
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W2161923363
- Semantic Scholar
- 71dbd1d5c13d7661857b0d245f7ce1d3fac7b0c5
- Cited by
- 9,020
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 346 · 2025: 505 · 2024: 406 · 2023: 462 · 2022: 420 · 2021: 486 · 2020: 532 · 2019: 571 · 2018: 463 · 2017: 461 · 2016: 497 · 2015: 471 · 2014: 451 · 2013: 361 · 2012: 383
- FWCI
- 117.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH051977)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Keywords
- stereotype threat, African Americans, standardized test performance, racial stereotypes, test-taking motivation, racial achievement gap
- MeSH terms
- Black or African American, Female, Humans, Intelligence Tests, Male, Stereotyping, Task Performance and Analysis
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
