Cited by 1,435Forgiveness and Related BehaviorsSocial and Intergroup PsychologyAttachment and Relationship Dynamics

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Interpersonal forgiving in close relationships: II: Theoretical elaboration and measurement

McCullough, Michael E., Rachal, K. Chris, Sandage, Steven J., Worthington, Everett L., Brown, Susan Wade, Hight, Terry L.·1998·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0022-3514.75.6.1586

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Terror Management and Trait Empathy: Evidence that Mortality Salience Promotes Reactions of Forgiveness among People with High (vs. low) Trait Empathy
Schimel, J., Wohl, M. J. A., & Williams, T. (2006) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-006-9040-y · Cited by 65
“The reason why we focused on forgiveness is because a fair amount of theory and research suggests that attitudes of forgiveness are associated with the restoration of interpersonal relationships (e.g., Fincham & Beach, 2002; McCullough, Hoyt, & Rachal, 2000; McCullough et al., 1998; McCullough, Worthington, & Rachal,…”
Background
Longitudinal Test of Forgiveness and Perceived Forgiveness as Mediators between Religiosity and Marital Satisfaction in Long-Term Marital Relationships
Rose, A. H., Anderson, S. R., Miller, R. B., Marks, L. D., Hatch, T. G., & Card, N. A. (2018) · American Journal of Family Therapy · doi:10.1080/01926187.2018.1547667 · Cited by 64
Positive psychological characteristics and interpersonal forgiveness: Identifying the unique contribution of emotional intelligence abilities, Big Five traits, gratitude and optimism
Rey, L., & Extremera, N. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.04.030 · Cited by 63
I’ll Never Forgive You: High Conflict Divorce, Social Network, and Co-Parenting Conflicts
Visser, M. M., Finkenauer, C., Schoemaker, K., Kluwer, E. S., van der Rijken, R., van Lawick, J., Bom, H., de Schipper, J. C., & Lamers-Winkelman, F. (2017) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-017-0821-6 · Cited by 65
“…to forgive their expartner, people have to consciously and actively seek to overcome their negative thoughts, feelings, and behavioral tendencies toward a transgressor to regain a more positive stance, despite the perpetrator’s hurtful actions (McCullough et al. 1998; Worthington 2001).”
BackgroundInfluential
Interpersonal Correlates of Peer Victimization Among Young Adolescents
Coleman, P. K., & Byrd, C. P. (2003) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1023/a:1023089028374 · Cited by 65
“... et al. (1997, p. 321) define forgiveness as “a motivational transformation that inclines people to inhibit relationship-destructive responses and to behave constructively toward someone who has behaved destructively toward them.” Forgiveness apparently brings a reduction in avoidance motivation and the desire for…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Restorative justice: not “rights”, but the right way to heal relationships at work
Kidder, D. L. (2007) · International Journal of Conflict Management · doi:10.1108/10444060710759291 · Cited by 63
Reasons for Remaining in a Relationship and Responses to Relational Transgressions
Roloff, M. E., Soule, K. P., & Carey, C. M. (2001) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/0265407501183004 · Cited by 63
Forgiveness: Integral to a science of close relationships?
Fincham, F. D. (2010) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/12061-018 · Cited by 63
“This association did not engender hostility or disdain toward forgiveness in the social sciences, but it may have caused it to seem insufficiently relevant, important, or amenable to scientific study (McCullough et al., 1998).”
Background
Forgiveness-reconciliation and communication-conflict-resolution interventions versus retested controls in early married couples.
Worthington, E. L., Berry, J. W., Hook, J. N., Davis, D. E., Scherer, M., Griffin, B. J., Wade, N. G., Yarhouse, M. A., Ripley, J. S., Miller, A. J., et al. (2014) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000045 · Cited by 65
Self-citation
Victim Forgiveness in Restorative Justice Dialogue
Armour, M. P., & Umbreit, M. S. (2006) · Victims & Offenders · doi:10.1080/15564880600626080 · Cited by 70
“Theoretical formulations as well as findings from clinical and experimental studies, however, have repeatedly shown relationships between forgiveness-related constructs, ie, apology, remorse, empathy, and victim forgiveness ( McCullough et al, 1997 ; McCullough et al, 1998 ) and forgiveness and justice ( Exline et al,…”
Background
On the acceptance of apologies
Fischbacher, U., & Utikal, V. (2013) · Games and Economic Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.geb.2013.09.003 · Cited by 66
On the relationship between justice and forgiveness: Are all forms of justice made equal?
Wenzel, M., & Okimoto, T. G. (2013) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12040 · Cited by 62
“It has been likened to altruistic behaviour that is most proximally driven by empathy for the offender (McCullough, Worthington, & Rachal, 1997; McCullough et al., 1998): A benevolent act despite the forgiver’s ‘moral right, and perhaps even … moral obligation, to seek retribution by punishing or…”
Background
Does perpetrator punishment satisfy victims' feelings of revenge?
Orth, U. (2004) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.20003 · Cited by 62
“Second, sincere apologies, remorse, and the acknowledgment of wrong-doing might reduce feelings of revenge [McCullough et al., 1998; Ohbuchi, 1989; Weiner et al., 1991].”
Background
Who says what during crises? A study about the interplay between gender similarity with the spokesperson and crisis response strategy
Crijns, H., Claeys, A., Cauberghe, V., & Hudders, L. (2017) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2017.06.010 · Cited by 66
The underdog trap: The moderating role of transgression type in forgiving underdog brands
Kim, Y., Park, K., & Lee, S. S. (2018) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.21155 · Cited by 62
The effects of consumer ethnocentrism and consumer animosity on perceived betrayal and negative word-of-mouth
Lee, H.-M., Chen, T., Chen, Y., Lo, W.-Y., & Hsu, Y.-H. (2020) · Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics · doi:10.1108/apjml-08-2019-0518 · Cited by 61
Transgressions, Guilt, and Forgiveness: A Model of Seeking Forgiveness
Riek, B. M. (2010) · Journal of Psychology and Theology · doi:10.1177/009164711003800402 · Cited by 61
The Social Psychology of Respect: Implications for Delegitimization and Reconciliation
Janoff‐Bulman, R., & Werther, A. (2008) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195300314.003.0008 · Cited by 58
“…to date has focused on interpersonal rather than intergroup relations, G ndings nevertheless suggest that apologies are associated with greater empathy for an o_ ender, as well as less revenge, anger, aggression and avoidance by victims (McCullough et al., 1998; Ohbuchi, Kameda, & Agarie, 1989).”
Background
The virtues: Gratitude and forgiveness.
Carlisle, R. D., & Tsang, J.-A. C. (2012) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/14045-023 · Cited by 59
Apology, Restitution, and Forgiveness After Psychological Contract Breach
DiFonzo, N., Alongi, A., & Wiele, P. (2018) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-018-3984-1 · Cited by 59
Money isn’t all that matters: The use of financial compensation and apologies to preserve relationships in the aftermath of distributive harm
Haesevoets, T., Folmer, C. R., Cremer, D. D., & Hiel, A. V. (2013) · Journal of Economic Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.joep.2013.02.003 · Cited by 57
“Particularly interesting, however, are positive actions that transgressors can employ to promote forgiveness (see Jones & Davis, 1965; McCullough, 2000; McCullough et al., 1998; Ristovski & Wertheim, 2005; Tabak, McCullough, Luna, Bono, & Berry, 2012).”
Background
Forgive and Forget, or Forgive and Regret? Whether Forgiveness Leads to Less or More Offending Depends on Offender Agreeableness
McNulty, J. K., & Russell, V. M. (2016) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167216637841 · Cited by 59
“To ensure that any associations were not spurious due to relationship satisfaction, which is cross-sectionally associated with forgiveness (McCullough et al., 1998) and has been related to agreeableness (McNulty, 2013), we assessed and controlled for relationship satisfaction before participants…”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
The Development of Intergroup Forgiveness in Northern Ireland
McLernon, F., Cairns, E., Hewstone, M., & Smith, R. (2004) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/j.0022-4537.2004.00373.x · Cited by 59
“In the study of gender differences, most studies (e.g., Girard & Mullet, 1997; Mullet et al., 2003; McCullough & Worhtington, 1999; McCullough et al., 1998; McCullough, Worhtington, & Rachal, 1997) indicate that gender is neither a predictor of forgiveness, nor a moderating variable.”
Background
Forgiveness and psychological adjustment following interpersonal transgressions: A longitudinal analysis
Orth, U., Berking, M., Walker, N., Meier, L. L., & Znoj, H. (2007) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2007.07.003 · Cited by 61
Commitment in Marketing Channels: Mitigator or Aggravator of the Effects of Destructive Acts?
Kim, S. K., Hibbard, J. D., & Swain, S. D. (2011) · Journal of Retailing · doi:10.1016/j.jretai.2011.09.006 · Cited by 56
Self and other justice beliefs, impulsivity, rumination, and forgiveness: Justice beliefs can both prevent and promote forgiveness
Lucas, T., Young, J., Zhdanova, L., & Alexander, S. (2010) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.07.014 · Cited by 60
“It is well recognized that rumination plays a vital role in decisions to forgive (e.g., McCullough, 2000; Worthington & Wade, 1999), and that ruminating about a perceived transgression is negatively associated with forgiveness (e.g., McCullough et al., 1998; Ysseldyk, Matheson, & Anisman, 2007).”
Background
Forgiveness is not always divine: When expressing forgiveness makes others avoid you
Adams, G. S., Zou, X., Inesi, M. E., & Pillutla, M. M. (2014) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2014.10.003 · Cited by 58
Efficacy of a Workbook to Promote Forgiveness: A Randomized Controlled Trial With University Students
Harper, Q., Worthington, E. L., Griffin, B. J., Lavelock, C. R., Hook, J. N., Vrana, S. R., & Greer, C. L. (2014) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.22079 · Cited by 57
“Students’ interpersonal motivations toward their offenders were measured using the TRIM Inventory (McCullough et al., 1998, 2003).”
InfluentialSelf-citation
Do actions speak louder than words? Differential effects of apology and restitution on behavioral and self-report measures of forgiveness
Carlisle, R. D., Tsang, J.-A. C., Ahmad, N. Y., Worthington, E. L., Witvliet, C. V., & Wade, N. G. (2012) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2012.690444 · Cited by 58
“For instance, McCullough et al. (1997, 1998) had introductory psychology students recall a past transgression.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citation
Forgiveness takes place on an attitudinal continuum from hostility to friendliness: Toward a closer union of forgiveness theory and measurement
Forster, D. E., Billingsley, J., Russell, V. M., McCauley, T. G., Smith, A., Burnette, J. L., Ohtsubo, Y., Schug, J., Lieberman, D., & McCullough, M. E. (2020) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspi0000227 · Cited by 57
Self-citation
A Step-By-Step Tutorial for Performing a Moderated Mediation Analysis using PROCESS
Clement, L. M., & Bradley-Garcia, M. (2022) · The Quantitative Methods for Psychology · doi:10.20982/tqmp.18.3.p258 · Cited by 74
Antecedents and consequences of collective empathy in software development project teams
Akgün, A. E., Keski̇n, H., Cebecioglu, A. Y., & Dogan, D. (2014) · Information & Management · doi:10.1016/j.im.2014.11.004 · Cited by 64
Helping Christian College Students Become More Forgiving: An Intervention Study to Promote Forgiveness as Part of a Program to Shape Christian Character
Lampton, C., Oliver, G. J., Worthington, E. L., & Berry, J. W. (2005) · Journal of Psychology and Theology · doi:10.1177/009164710503300404 · Cited by 57
Self-citation
Workplace Harassment Intensity and Revenge: Mediation and Moderation Effects
Wang, Q., Bowling, N. A., Tian, Q.-T., Alarcon, G. M., & Kwan, H. K. (2016) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-016-3243-2 · Cited by 58
The influence of forgiveness and apology on cardiovascular reactivity and recovery in response to mental stress
Whited, M. C., Wheat, A. L., & Larkin, K. T. (2010) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-010-9259-7 · Cited by 56
“The internal consistencies of these subscales have been reported to be .86 and .90, respectively (McCullough et al. 1998).”
Background
Retaliation against supervisory mistreatment
Kim, T., & Shapiro, D. L. (2008) · International Journal of Conflict Management · doi:10.1108/10444060810909293 · Cited by 55
“For instance, in a study consisting of US American graduate students, McCullough et al. (1998)”
Background
Comparison of Two Group Interventions to Promote Forgiveness: Empathy as a Mediator of Change
Sandage, S. J., & Worthington, E. L. (2010) · Journal of Mental Health Counseling · doi:10.17744/mehc.32.1.274536n518571683 · Cited by 58
Self-citation
Three ways to forgive: A numerically aided phenomenological study
Wohl, M. J. A., Kuiken, D., & Noels, K. A. (2006) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466605x53695 · Cited by 55
Power in Close Intimate Relationships
Kim, J. J., Visserman, M. L., & Impett, E. A. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108131490.010 · Cited by 64
“toward a partner who has transgressed against the relationship (McCullough et al., 1998).”
Background
Victim-perpetrator differences in reports of hurtful events
Feeney, J. A., & Hill, A. (2006) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/0265407506065985 · Cited by 55
“These items, drawn from McCullough et al. (1998), formed a reliable forgiveness scale, with alpha reliabilities exceeding .80 for males and for females.”
Background
Beyond righting the wrong: Supervisor-subordinate reconciliation after an injustice
Andiappan, M., & Treviño, L. K. (2010) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/0018726710384530 · Cited by 56
“Interestingly, past conceptualizations of reconciliation have stipulated that the victim should initiate the relationship restoration effort (Aquino et al., 2006; McCullough et al., 1997, 1998).”
Background
The Subjective Experience of Forgiveness: Positive Construals of the Forgiveness Experience
Williamson, I., & Gonzales, M. H. (2007) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2007.26.4.407 · Cited by 55
“Extending prior research on the relation between victim–offender closeness and forgiveness (McCullough et al., 1998), we expected that closeness to offenders prior to the painful offense would differentially predict forgiveness experience subscale scores.”
Background
Does love become hate or forgiveness after a double deviation? The case of hotel loyalty program members
Lee, J., Kim, J., Hwang, J., & Cui, Y. G. (2020) · Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2020.104279 · Cited by 56
Retributive Justice
Wenzel, M., & Okimoto, T. G. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-3216-0_13 · Cited by 65
Conceptualizing forgiveness: A review and path forward
Brady, D. L., Saldanha, M. F., & Barclay, L. J. (2022) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2632 · Cited by 72
Would you forgive me? From perceived justice and complaint handling to customer forgiveness and brand credibility-symmetrical and asymmetrical perspectives
Ali, F., El-Manstrly, D. A., & Abbasi, G. A. (2023) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2023.114138 · Cited by 63
Male Versus Female: How the Gender of Apologizers Influences Consumer Forgiveness
Wei, H., & Ran, Y. (2017) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-017-3440-7 · Cited by 55
“Moreover, consumers show more sympathy toward people they perceive to be warmer (Fiske et al. 2002)—in other words, toward women more than men—and in turn are more likely to forgive them (McCullough et al. 1998).”
Background
Modeling revenge and avoidance in the mobile service industry: moderation role of technology anxiety
Hsu, L., Wang, K., Chih, W., & Lin, W.-C. (2019) · Service Industries Journal · doi:10.1080/02642069.2019.1585428 · Cited by 53
“The items used to measure anger were adapted from Buss and Perry (1992), while the scales for revenge and avoidance originated with McCullough et al. (1998).”
BackgroundMethod
Accounting for within‐person differences in how people respond to daily incivility at work
Beattie, L., & Griffin, B. (2014) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/joop.12067 · Cited by 54
Bridging Diverging Perspectives and Repairing Damaged Relationships in the Aftermath of Workplace Transgressions
Okimoto, T. G., & Wenzel, M. (2014) · Business Ethics Quarterly · doi:10.5840/beq201471515 · Cited by 56
Desire for Revenge and Attitudes Toward the Khmer Rouge Tribunal Among Cambodians
Field, N. P., & Chhim, S. (2008) · Journal of Loss and Trauma · doi:10.1080/15325020701742086 · Cited by 57
“The five items composing the revenge scale were taken from the Transgression-Related Interpersonal Motivations Inventory (TRIM) (McCullough et al., 1998).”
Method
Claiming more than equality: Should leaders ask for forgiveness?
Stouten, J., & Tripp, T. M. (2009) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.03.002 · Cited by 52
“Further, seven items of the Transgression-Related Interpersonal Motivation Scale (TRIM-12; McCullough et al., 1998) were assessed.”
Measures of Forgiveness
Worthington, E. L., Lavelock, C. R., Witvliet, C. V., Rye, M. S., Tsang, J.-A. C., & Toussaint, L. L. (2014) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-386915-9.00017-6 · Cited by 60
Self-citation
Interpersonal Forgiveness in E motion‐Focused Couples' Therapy: Relating Process to Outcome
Meneses, C. W., & Greenberg, L. S. (2012) · Journal of Marital and Family Therapy · doi:10.1111/j.1752-0606.2012.00330.x · Cited by 53
Relationship continuity and emotional well-being in spouses of people with dementia
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“…to elicit a negative emotional reaction (e.g. irritation or anger) when those in the relationship are less satisfied and committed to the relationship; and more likely to be ignored, tolerated or forgiven in stronger relationships (McCullough et al., 1998; Regan, 2011; Ysseldyk & Wohl, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluential
A meta-analysis of forgiveness education interventions’ effects on forgiveness and anger in children and adolescents
Rapp, H., Xu, J. W., & Enright, R. D. (2022) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13771 · Cited by 64
Forgiveness and rumination: a cross‐cultural perspective comparing India and the US
Suchday, S., Friedberg, J. P., & Almeida, M. (2006) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.1082 · Cited by 52
Forgiveness for intimate partner violence: The influence of victim and offender variables
Tsang, J.-A. C., & Stanford, M. S. (2006) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.08.017 · Cited by 51
“Religiousness as a personality-level determinant of forgiveness (McCullough et al., 1998) may be especially relevant to intimate partner violence.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Linking customer verbal aggression and service sabotage
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Forgiveness Viewed from Positive Psychology and Islam
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“This is also the basis of social and psychological phenomena (McCullough et al., 1998: 2013; Worthington et al., 2007).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Comparison of forgiveness and anger-reduction group treatments: A randomized controlled trial
Goldman, D. B., & Wade, N. G. (2012) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2012.692954 · Cited by 56
“’’ Those who answered ‘‘Yes’’ were then directed to complete the Revenge subscale of the TRIM (McCullough et al., 1998).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
An investigation of antecedents and consequences of brand love in India
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Measuring Forgiveness
Fernández-Capo, M., Fernández, S. R., Gámiz, M., Gómez‐Benito, J., & Worthington, E. L. (2017) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000303 · Cited by 49
“Reviewed measures of forgiveness Scales of forgiveness Dispositional forgiveness Forgiveness of Others Scale (FOS; Mauger et al., 1992) Willingness to forgive (WTF; Helb & Enright, 1993) Psychological profile of forgiveness (PPF; Helb & Enright, 1993) Family Forgiveness Scale (FFS; Pollard, Anderson, Anderson, & Jenni…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
Metacognition, Personal Distress, and Performance-Based Empathy in Schizophrenia
Bonfils, K. A., Lysaker, P. H., Minor, K. S., & Salyers, M. P. (2018) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sby137 · Cited by 51
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The Social Aftershocks of Voice: An Investigation of Employees’ Affective and Interpersonal Reactions after Speaking Up
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Peetz, J., & Kammrath, L. K. (2011) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0021857 · Cited by 48
Perceived justice, emotions, and behavioral intentions in the Taiwanese food and beverage industry
Ortiz, J., Chiu, T., Chih, W., & Hsu, C.-W. (2017) · International Journal of Conflict Management · doi:10.1108/ijcma-10-2016-0084 · Cited by 53
Don't be rude! The effect of content moderation on consumer‐brand forgiveness
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Social Capital Online: Alienation and Accumulation
Faucher, K. X. (2018) · University of Westminster Press eBooks · doi:10.16997/book16 · Cited by 60
The role of forgiveness in shifting from “Me” to “We”
Karremans, J. C., & Lange, P. A. M. V. (2007) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860601182435 · Cited by 50
“This measure, developed by McCullough et al. (1998), was designed to assess forgiveness, based on an underlying two-component motivational system (i.e., avoidance and revenge).”
BackgroundMethod
Intellectual Humility and Forgiveness of Religious Conflict
Zhang, H., Farrell, J. E., Hook, J. N., Davis, D. E., Van Tongeren, D. R., & Johnson, K. A. (2015) · Journal of Psychology and Theology · doi:10.1177/009164711504300403 · Cited by 46
Do you really expect me to apologize? The impact of status and gender on the effectiveness of an apology in the workplace
Walfisch, T., Dijk, D. V., & Kark, R. (2013) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.12101 · Cited by 48
The soothing effects of forgiveness on victims' and perpetrators' blood pressure
Hannon, P. A., Finkel, E. J., Kumashiro, M., & Rusbult, C. E. (2011) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.2011.01356.x · Cited by 47
Spirituality Predicts Health and Cardiovascular Responses to Stress in Young Adult Women
Edmondson, K. A., Lawler, K. A., Jobe, R. L., Younger, J. W., Piferi, R. L., & Jones, W. H. (2005) · Journal of Religion and Health · doi:10.1007/s10943-005-2774-0 · Cited by 47
On the role of harmonious and obsessive romantic passion in conflict behavior
Carbonneau, N., & Vallerand, R. J. (2013) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-013-9354-5 · Cited by 50
“…physical contact, have positive effects such as enhancing perceptions of partner care and intimacy (Alvaro 2001), facilitating the restoration of relationship commitment and closeness (Tsang et al. 2006), and enhancing both relationship satisfaction and stability (e.g., McCullough et al. 1998).”
Background
Offense Type as Determinant of Revenge and Forgiveness After Victimization: Adolescents’ Responses to Injustice and Aggression
Gerlsma, C., & Lugtmeyer, V. (2016) · Journal of School Violence · doi:10.1080/15388220.2016.1193741 · Cited by 62
“…when they are asked for their experiences with injustice and violence, and to what extent different types of offenses elicit different responses in terms of TRIMs (i.e., feelings of revenge, avoidance, and benevolence toward the perpetrator; McCullough, 2008; McCullough et al., 1998, 2006).”
BackgroundInfluential
Is consumer forgiveness possible?
Hur, J., & Jang, S. S. (2019) · International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management · doi:10.1108/ijchm-07-2017-0395 · Cited by 48
Revenge Fantasies After Experiencing Traumatic Events: Sex Differences
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Facilitating Forgiveness in Organizational Contexts: Exploring the Injustice Gap, Emotions, and Expressive Writing Interventions
Barclay, L. J., & Saldanha, M. F. (2015) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-015-2750-x · Cited by 49
Retribution and forgiveness: The healing effects of punishing for just deserts
Strelan, P., & van Prooijen, J. (2013) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.1964 · Cited by 54
“Indeed, a construct closely related to punishment, revenge, is often measured as the opposite of forgiveness (see the widely used Transgression Related Interpersonal Motivations [TRIM] scale of McCullough et al. (1998)).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
A Relationship With God? Connecting with the Divine to Assuage Fears of Interpersonal Rejection
Laurin, K., Schumann, K., & Holmes, J. G. (2014) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550614531800 · Cited by 47
“In the context of human relationships, the closer the people feel to a relationship partner, the more likely they are to respond constructively to that partner’s transgressions (McCullough et al., 1998; Ohbuchi & Takada, 2001).”
Background
When apologies fail: The moderating effect of implicit and explicit self-esteem on apology and forgiveness
Eaton, J., Struthers, C., Shomrony, A., & Santelli, A. G. (2007) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860601118819 · Cited by 50
“Apologies, in addition to improving the victim’s impression of the transgressor (Goffman, 1971) and increasing empathy toward the transgressor (McCullough, Worthington, & Rachal, 1997; McCullough et al., 1998), provide both explicit and implicit information about the transgression.”
BackgroundMethod
Causes and Consequences of Children's Forgiveness
van der Wal, R. C., Karremans, J. C., & Cillessen, A. H. N. (2016) · Child Development Perspectives · doi:10.1111/cdep.12216 · Cited by 49
“Forgiveness can be defined as a prosocial change of motivation toward an offender (3, 4)”
Background
The Influence of Decisional and Emotional Forgiveness on Attributions
Lichtenfeld, S., Maier, M., Buechner, V. L., & Fernández-Capo, M. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01425 · Cited by 46
How Does Religion Affect Consumer Response to Failure and Recovery by Firms?
Hyodo, J. D., & Bolton, L. E. (2020) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1093/jcr/ucaa043 · Cited by 46
Forgiveness as character education for children and adolescents
Lin, W. N., Enright, R. D., & Klatt, J. S. (2011) · Journal of Moral Education · doi:10.1080/03057240.2011.568106 · Cited by 50
“This research indicates the impact of the offence (McCullough et al., 1998) the offering of an apology (Zechmeister et al.”
Background
Forgiveness and conflict resolution in close relationships: within and cross partner effects
Paleari, F. G., Regalia, C., & Fincham, F. D. (2010) · Universitas Psychologica · doi:10.11144/javeriana.upsy9-1.fcrc · Cited by 46
“For example, the TRIM (Transgression Relevant Interpersonal Motivations, McCullough et al., 1998) and the MFS (Marital Forgiveness Scale, Fincham et al., 2004) assess unforgiveness through items (e.g., “I keep as much distance between us as get even”, “ I retaliated or did something to get my own…”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Former partners and new rivals as threats to a relationship: Infidelity type, gender, and commitment as factors related to distress and forgiveness
Cann, A., & Baucom, T. R. (2004) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.2004.00084.x · Cited by 47
Forgiveness as a Mediator Between Post Divorce Cognitive Processes and Coparenting Quality
Bonach, K., & Sales, E. (2002) · Journal of Divorce & Remarriage · doi:10.1300/j087v38n01_02 · Cited by 45
Forgiveness and its determinants depending on the interpersonal context of hurt
Peets, K., Hodges, E. V. E., & Salmivalli, C. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2012.05.009 · Cited by 45
“%) in single-item assessments of forgiveness (McCullough et al., 1998).”
Background
Bullying and the detrimental role of un-forgiveness in adolescents’ wellbeing
Barcaccia, B., Schneider, B. H., Pallini, S., & Baiocco, R. (2017) · Psicothema · doi:10.7334/psicothema2016.251 · Cited by 45
Can Religion Promote Virtue?: A More Stringent Test of the Model of Relational Spirituality and Forgiveness
Davis, D. E., Hook, J., Tongeren, D. V. V., Gartner, A. L., & Worthington, E. (2012) · International Journal for the Psychology of Religion · doi:10.1080/10508619.2011.646229 · Cited by 42
“Such items have been frequently used as covariates in studies of unforgiveness (see McCullough et al., 1998).”
MethodInfluentialSelf-citation
Marital Well‐being and Religiousness as Mediated by Relational Virtue and Equality
Day, R. D., & Acock, A. C. (2013) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2012.01033.x · Cited by 44
Transgressors’ guilt and shame
Riek, B. M., Luna, L. M. R., & Schnabelrauch, C. A. (2013) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/0265407513503595 · Cited by 57
“Interdependence theory has heavily shaped research and theorizing regarding the effect a relationship has on interpersonal forgiveness (e.g., Finkel, Rusbult, Kumashiro, & Hannon, 2002; Karremans & Van Lange, 2008; McCullough et al., 1998; Rusbult, Kumashiro, Finkel, & Wildschut, 2002).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
The serial reproduction of conflict: Third parties escalate conflict through communication biases
Lee, T. L., Gelfand, M. J., & Kashima, Y. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2014.04.006 · Cited by 44
Medical errors: Disclosure styles, interpersonal forgiveness, and outcomes
Hannawa, A. F., Shigemoto, Y., & Little, T. D. (2016) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.03.026 · Cited by 44
“While partial versions of this proximity model have been tested (see McCullough et al., 1997; McCullough et al., 1998), a test of the full model is needed.”
BackgroundMethod
Embarrassed customers: the dark side of receiving help from others
Kim, S. Y., & Yi, Y. (2017) · Journal of service management · doi:10.1108/josm-11-2016-0296 · Cited by 44
September 11th related stress and trauma in New Yorkers
Friedberg, J. P., Adonis, M. N., Bergen, H. A. V., & Suchday, S. (2005) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.1039 · Cited by 45
Revenge after trauma: Theoretical outline
Gäbler, I., & Maercker, A. R. A. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-211-99741-3_5 · Cited by 43
“For example, the terms vengeance and revenge are often used as synonyms, being applied to both the response to a specific event ( McCullough et al. 1998, 2001 ) and a disposition or personality trait (Ysseldyk et al. 2007).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential

Authors: McCullough, M. E., Rachal, K. C., Sandage, S. J., Worthington, E. L., Brown, S. W., & Hight, T. L.
ORCID: McCullough, Michael E.
Sandage, Steven J.
Worthington, Everett L.
Venue: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1998
Volume: 75
Issue: 6
Pages: 1586-1603
ISSN: 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
1939-1315
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.75.6.1586
OpenAlex: W4296289882
Cited by: 1,435
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 41 · 2025: 53 · 2024: 56 · 2023: 89 · 2022: 66 · 2021: 61 · 2020: 74 · 2019: 75 · 2018: 66 · 2017: 99 · 2016: 79 · 2015: 72 · 2014: 68 · 2013: 56 · 2012: 59
FWCI: 18.72
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Forgiveness and Related Behaviors
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
Keywords: interpersonal forgiveness, close relationships, interpersonal conflict

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Interpersonal forgiving in close relationships: II: Theoretical elaboration and measurement

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