The DOI matches its Crossref record; 30 of the 30 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Massive IQ gains in 14 nations: What IQ tests really measure.
Abstract
Data from 14 nations reveal IQ gains ranging from 5 to 25 points in a single generation. Some of the largest gains occur on culturally reduced tests and tests of fluid intelligence. The Norwegian data show that a nation can make significant gains on a culturally reduced test while suffering losses on other tests. The Dutch data prove the existence of unknown environmental factors so potent that they account for 15 of the 20 points gained. The hypothesis that best fits the results is that IQ tests do not measure intelligence but rather a correlate with a weak causal link to intelligence. This hypothesis can also explain differential trends on various mental tests, such as the combination of IQ gains and Scholastic Aptitude Test losses in the United States. Over the last decade, scholars in many countries—largely unknown to one another—have been measuring IQ trends from one generation to the next. In this article their results are collected and analyzed so as to reap the benefits comparative data usually yield. It is also argued that this mass of data poses fundamental problems for developmental psychology, primarily concerning what factors have the most potent effect on IQ, what IQ tests measure, and how IQ tests should be used in making between-groups comparisons.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Industrialized nations, while embracing IQ testing in education and employment, have simultaneously experienced a generational rise in IQ scores, a phenomenon known as the Flynn effect (Flynn, 1987(Flynn, , 2011)).”
From Human Intelligence, Creativity, and Wisdom in the Age of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2025) · cites this paper as Flynn, 1987
In the citing paper
“Populations’ mean intelligence test scores have been rising since the beginning of the twentieth century.”
From The secular trend of intelligence test scores: The Danish experience for young men born between 1940 and 2000 (2021) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“The data reported by Flynn and others are insufficient to address this question given the limited range of cohorts examined.”
From An Historical Framework for Cohort Differences in Intelligence (2005) · cites this paper as Flynn, 1987
In the citing paper
“Of concern to the study and theory of life-span development is the fact that these assertions were based almost exclusively on differences found between two particular cohorts differing approximately 30 years in age—the massive cohort gains are reported for the post-World War II cohort with most data cited pertaining to those born in the 1950s.”
From An Historical Framework for Cohort Differences in Intelligence (2005) · cites this paper as Flynn, 1987
Citations
Cites
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
Miles-Mason, E. (2018) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781483392271.n537 · Cited by 4,133
Scribner, S., & Cole, M. (1981) · doi:10.4159/harvard.9780674433014 · Cited by 3,447
(1980) · DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) · Cited by 1,935
The mean IQ of Americans: Massive gains 1932 to 1978.
Flynn, J. R. (1984) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.95.1.29 · Cited by 1,206
Self-citationSTANDARDIZATION OF PROGRESSIVE MATRICES, 1938
RAVEN, J. C. (1941) · British Journal of Medical Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8341.1941.tb00316.x · Cited by 389
Social versus reproductive success: The central theoretical problem of human sociobiology
Vining, D. R. (1986) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00021968 · Cited by 326
Race Differences in Intelligence
Bootzin, R. R., Loehlin, J. C., Lindzey, G. E., & Spuhler, J. N. (1976) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1421415 · Cited by 307
IQ in Japan and the United States shows a growing disparity
Lynn, R. (1982) · Nature · doi:10.1038/297222a0 · Cited by 256
On the plasticity of intelligence in adulthood and old age: Where Horn and Donaldson fail.
Baltes, P. B., & Schaie, K. W. (1976) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.31.10.720 · Cited by 223
Education and Cognitive Development: The Evidence from Experimental Research
Sharp, D. W., Cole, M., Lave, C., Ginsburg, H. P., Brown, A. L., & French, L. A. (1979) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.2307/3181586 · Cited by 223
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 1,801–1,900 of 1,967
(2013) · Advances in multimedia and interactive technologies book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-4703-9.ch003
Kennison, R. F., Situ, D., Reyes, N., & Ahačić, K. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-287-082-7_262
(2012) · Nomos eBooks · doi:10.5771/9783845236902_505
(2012) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-382169-0.16001-3
Staudinger, U. M. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-69892-2_105-1
Wahłsten, D. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-812832-9.00015-4
(1995) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.1080/01621459.1995.10476655
Weber, A. (2020) · Future of business and finance · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-36229-4_8
The Evolution of Systemic Approaches to Children and Adolescents
Wampler, R. S. (2020) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119788393.ch1
Kenworthy, L. (2008) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199550593.003.0008
Neuroimaging Methods and Findings
(2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108635462.013
Preface by the Editorial Committee
(1967) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.18.021904.100001
Sternberg, R. J., & Glück, J. (2022) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009085724.017
The Future of Work in Investment Management: The Future of Skills and Learning
Cao, L., Fender, R., & Munson, R. (2022) · doi:10.56227/22.1.7
Methoden und Ergebnisse der kulturvergleichenden Kindheits- und Jugendforschung
Helfrich, H. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-24777-5_14
Plastizität menschlichen Alterns: Die Chancen des Zusammenspiels von Biologie, Kultur und Person
Staudinger, U. M. (2022) · Schriften der Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Klasse · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-34859-5_1
(2021) · Dunod eBooks · doi:10.3917/dunod.lieur.2021.02.0207
(2021) · Dunod eBooks · doi:10.3917/dunod.vince.2021.02.0331
(2008) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199550593.005.0001
(2008) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199550593.002.0003
Oesterdiekhoff, G. W. (2023) · Qeios · doi:10.32388/4t7ok0
Caemmerer, J. M., Young, S. R., Blemahdoo, E., & Winter, E. L. (2023) · Autism and child psychopathology series · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-24926-6_16
Lumpy Heads and Violent Genes: Moving Beyond Simple-Minded Explanations for Complex-Minded Folk
Laland, K. N. (2023) · Biological Theory · doi:10.1007/s13752-023-00442-4
An Evolutionary Theory of ValuesPreprint
Griffiths, N., Thomas, K., & Dyer, B. T. J. (2023) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/awzkm
What Matters is the Deployment, Not the Possession of Gifts: A Tribute to Marcia Gentry
Sternberg, R. J. (2023) · Roeper Review · doi:10.1080/02783193.2023.2246144
A Field Theory of Human IntelligencePreprint
Griswold, A. (2023) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/vhwfm
Davtian, S. E., & Davtian, E. N. (2023) · Психиатрия психотерапия и клиническая психология · doi:10.34883/pi.2023.14.3.009
(2016) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781394259397.refs
Cognitive Abilities and Performance
Helfrich, H. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-67558-8_7
Sternberg, R. J. (2022) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119771418.ch7
Urbina, S. (2014) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781394259458.refs
Sebaregulácia v kontexte rizikového správania v dospievaní
Banárová, K., Čerešník, M., Kňažek, G., Považanová, B., & Dolejš, M. (2023) · doi:10.5507/ff.23.24463438
Building a More Robust Introduction to Measurement in Research Method Courses
Reynolds, J. J. (2024) · Trends in Psychology · doi:10.1007/s43076-024-00364-5
Neyer, F. J., & Asendorpf, J. B. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-67385-0_4
Improving Trends in Brain Health Explain Declining Dementia Risk?
Vemuri, P. (2024) · JAMA Neurology · doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2024.0476
Cultural Change, Human Activity, and Cognitive Development
Gauvain, M., & Munroe, R. L. (2016) · International Congress of the International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology (IACCP) · doi:10.4087/udzv1891
Positional Goods and Opportunity Hoarding
Thomas, A., Archer, A., & Engelen, B. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197781722.003.0010
The Emotional Regimes of Roman Republicanism and Political Liberalism
Thomas, A., Archer, A., & Engelen, B. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197781722.003.0008
Inequality, Shame, Envy, and Admiration
Thomas, A., Archer, A., & Engelen, B. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197781722.003.0012
The Science of Happiness, Inequality, and Well-Being
Thomas, A., Archer, A., & Engelen, B. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197781722.003.0011
Rousseau, Smith, and Hegel on the Emotional Regimes of Commercial Society
Thomas, A., Archer, A., & Engelen, B. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197781722.003.0007
Thomas, A., Archer, A., & Engelen, B. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197781722.003.0015
The Promises and Failures of Capitalist Market Societies
Thomas, A., Archer, A., & Engelen, B. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197781722.003.0009
Emotions, Explanations, and Emotional Regimes
Thomas, A., Archer, A., & Engelen, B. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197781722.003.0006
Empirical Data on Inequality and the Dual Economy
Thomas, A., Archer, A., & Engelen, B. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197781722.003.0003
Thomas, A., Archer, A., & Engelen, B. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197781722.002.0005
The False Promise of Meritocracy and Its Emotional Regime
Thomas, A., Archer, A., & Engelen, B. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197781722.003.0013
Recruiting the Science of Happiness
Thomas, A., Archer, A., & Engelen, B. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197781722.003.0005
Liberal and Republican Emotional Regimes Revisited
Thomas, A., Archer, A., & Engelen, B. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197781722.003.0014
Thomas, A., Archer, A., & Engelen, B. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197781722.003.0001
Thomas, A., Archer, A., & Engelen, B. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197781722.002.0004
Lohaus, A., Vierhaus, M., & Lemola, S. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-69370-4_10
Joseph, J. (2024) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/u35nj
An Introduction to Chemical Pedagogy
(2024) · Royal Society of Chemistry eBooks · doi:10.1039/9781839163272-00001
Ribeiro, E. S., & de Sousa, C. E. B. (2024) · doi:10.29327/9786527210832.921959
Bhidé, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197688359.002.0008
Frank Knight: The Spark That Did Not Ignite
Bhidé, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197688359.003.0005
Bhidé, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197688359.002.0003
Practically Omniscient Microeconomics
Bhidé, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197688359.003.0006
Spillovers from Popular Stories
Bhidé, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197688359.003.0021
Bhidé, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197688359.003.0002
Conjectures about Justification
Bhidé, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197688359.003.0003
Bhidé, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197688359.002.0004
Bhidé, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197688359.003.0022
Herbert Simon: Faded Guiding Star
Bhidé, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197688359.003.0009
Kahneman and Tversky: Gaining Acceptance, Dropping Uncertainty
Bhidé, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197688359.003.0011
Bhidé, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197688359.003.0019
Calculating Capitalists: VCs and Angel Investors
Bhidé, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197688359.003.0015
Imperfect Market Theories: Realism without Fallibility
Bhidé, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197688359.003.0007
Including Uncertainty: Recapitulation and Preview
Bhidé, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197688359.003.0013
Daniel Ellsberg’s Ambiguity: A Simplifying Side Trip
Bhidé, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197688359.003.0010
Bhidé, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197688359.003.0004
John Maynard Keynes: Help to Distraction
Bhidé, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197688359.003.0008
Bhidé, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197688359.003.0018
The Evolution of Dynamic Bureaucracies
Bhidé, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197688359.003.0016
Bhidé, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197688359.003.0001
Richard Thaler & Co.: Building the New Behavioral Boomtowns
Bhidé, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197688359.003.0012
Bhidé, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197688359.003.0017
Bhidé, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197688359.003.0020
“Bootstrapping” Improvised Startups
Bhidé, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197688359.003.0014
Bhidé, A. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197688359.002.0006
Ercegovac, I., Milivojević, T. Đ., & Manić, L. (2024) · CM Communication and Media · doi:10.5937/cm19-56102
The WAIS V: Changes to test structure and content
Beail, N. (2025) · FPID Bulletin The Bulletin of the Faculty for People with Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.53841/bpsfpid.2025.23.1.74
THE ROLE OF STANDARDIZED INTELLIGENCE TESTS IN THE DIAGNOSTICS OF GIFTTDNESS
Voloshchuk, I., & Shulenok, O. (2024) · Education and development of gifted personality · doi:10.32405/2309-3935-2024-4(95)-10-17
Protzko, J., Colom, R., & Karama, S. (2025) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/4th8x_v2
Human Intelligence Forming in the Rhythm of Solar ActivityPreprint
Vasylyev, V. (2025) · doi:10.31223/x55b1s
Human Intelligence RedescribedPreprint
Griswold, A. (2025) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/483bd_v1
A critical evaluation of the relationship between personality, intelligence and crime
Seyidoğlu, S. (2025) · ODÜ Sosyal Bilimler Araştırmaları Dergisi (ODÜSOBİAD) · doi:10.48146/odusobiad.1531678
Sander, Z. M., Schöne, C., Dickhäuser, O., Stiensmeier‐Pelster, J., & Spinath, B. (2025) · Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie · doi:10.1024/1010-0652/a000402
Intelligenz, Kreativität und Begabung
Stumpf, E., & Perleth, C. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-69557-9_12
Dickens, W. T. (2008) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-349-58802-2_255
Developing Successful Intelligence in all Children
Sternberg, R. J. (2005) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-60752-684-120251008
Implicit Theories and Responses to Achievement Setbacks
Ip, W.-M., & Chiu, C. (2001) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-60752-686-520251015
Flynn, J. R. (2004) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-60752-499-120251014
Self-citation(2013) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-62396-318-720251014
You Must be Indulgent to Be Considered Smart: Epistemic Curiosity as an Indication of IntelligencePreprint
Zoljargal, E. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5903802
Evidence of Physical Plasticity in Humans
Steen, R. G. (2009) · Plenum series on human exceptionality · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-0092-0_6
Evidence of Mental Plasticity in Humans
Steen, R. G. (2009) · Plenum series on human exceptionality · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-0092-0_7
Selvamani, Y., & Arokiasamy, P. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14759742
Metadata
- Authors
- Flynn, J. R.
- Affiliations
- University of Otago (NZ)
- Corresponding author
- Flynn, James R.
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1987-03
- Volume
- 101
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 171-191
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2063679076
- Cited by
- 1,918
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2026: 27 · 2025: 48 · 2024: 54 · 2023: 39 · 2022: 42 · 2021: 67 · 2020: 48 · 2019: 61 · 2018: 66 · 2017: 62 · 2016: 64 · 2015: 73 · 2014: 84 · 2013: 71 · 2012: 77
- FWCI
- 38.08
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Update notices
- correction (2008-09-26)
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Intergenerational and Educational Inequality Studies
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Keywords
- IQ gains, fluid intelligence, intelligence testing, Scholastic Aptitude Test, developmental psychology
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
