An Historical Framework for Cohort Differences in Intelligence

May combine two claims.

Number ability exhibits a negative trend, which is much more pronounced when examined across a broader range of cohorts.

“In fact, number ability exhibits a negative trend, which, as we show, is much more pronounced when examined across a broader range of cohorts.”

May combine two claims.

Cohort differences (1889-1952) for verbal ability are of equivalent magnitude to those for inductive reasoning until the 1959 cohort, when the gradient began to decline for verbal meaning.

“Indeed, the cohort differences (1889–1952) for verbal ability are of equivalent magnitude to that for inductive reasoning until the 1959 cohort, which is when the gradient began to decline for verbal meaning.”

May combine two claims.

SLS data indicate systematic and substantial positive advances in cohort level for both crystallized ability (verbal meaning) and fluid abilities (spatial orientation and inductive reasoning).

“In contrast to the conclusions that would be drawn from data cited for the Flynn effect, these data indicate that there are systematic and substantial positive advances in cohort level for both crystallized ability (verbal meaning) and fluid abilities (spatial orientation and inductive reasoning).”

May combine two claims.

Over the Baby Boomer cohorts (1945-1966), there has been a positive linear trend for inductive reasoning, a negative trend for number, and a plateau for verbal ability.

“For example, over the Baby Boomer cohorts (1945–1966), there has been a positive linear trend for inductive reasoning, a negative trend for number, and a plateau for verbal ability.”

May combine two claims.

Word fluency shows a concave pattern: a negative cohort trend prevails until the 1938 cohort, but improvement occurs for subsequent cohorts.

“Word fluency, by contrast, shows a concave pattern. A negative cohort trend prevails until the 1938 cohort, but improvement occurs for subsequent cohorts.”

The quote only partly states this claim.

A similar trend of deceleration in educational gains is shown in the SLS data.

“A similar trend is shown in the SLS data in Figure 3.”

May combine two claims.

In old age, there are far more substantial differences in level between Cohorts 2 and 6, and a substantial difference in slope, particularly for verbal meaning, favoring the later born cohort.

“Far more substantial differences in level are found in old age between Cohorts 2 and 6, but now there is also a substantial difference in slope, particularly for verbal meaning, favoring the later born cohort.”

May combine two claims.

For word fluency, earlier cohorts have a slight advantage over later born ones, but beginning with the cohort born in 1945, there are successive positive cohort differences.

“For this ability, then, earlier cohorts have a slight advantage over the later born ones; but beginning with the cohort born in 1945, there are also successive positive cohort differences for this ability.”

May combine two claims.

The trajectories for the three sample cohorts reflect overall cohort differences in level and demonstrate that trajectories differ by ability as well as by life stage.

“The trajectories for the three sample cohorts, first of all, reflect the overall cohort differences in level, but they also demonstrate that the trajectories differ by ability as well as by life stage.”

May combine two claims.

The 1924 cohort exceeds both earlier and later born cohorts; the youngest cohorts are currently at a disadvantage compared with older cohorts.

“The 1924 cohort exceed both earlier and later born cohorts; the youngest cohorts are, therefore, currently at a disadvantage when compared with the older cohorts.”

May combine two claims.

In midlife, there is little difference between Cohorts 6 and 10 on verbal meaning but a modest systematic gain for Cohort 10 on inductive reasoning.

“Thus, in midlife, there is little difference between Cohorts 6 and 10 on verbal meaning but a modest systematic gain for Cohort 10 on inductive reasoning.”

May combine two claims.

The SLS shows marked increase in educational attainment for subsequent cohorts, resulting in an average increase of 51⁄2 years over the period studied, with a greater increase of 1 year for men.

“And, indeed, our own studies show marked increase in educational attainment for subsequent cohorts, resulting in an average increase of 5½ years over the period studied, with a greater increase of 1 year for men (see Figure 3).”

May combine two claims.

Number ability shows positive cohort differences up to about the 1910 cohort, then a plateau followed by a negative shift indicating successive lowering of performance level.

“Number ability shows positive cohort differences up to about the 1910 cohort. But then there is a plateau followed by a negative shift that indicates a successive lowering of performance level.”

May combine two claims.

Current cohorts may be peaking intellectually at later ages or maintaining their peak level of functioning until a later chronological age.

“There is strong suggestive evidence that current cohorts may be peaking at later ages or maintaining their peak level of functioning until a later chronological age (Schaie, 2005).”

• cites Schaie, 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Perhaps the largest difference between Cohorts 2 and 6 is the dramatic increase in educational attainment, which is accompanied by marked cohort differences at comparable ages for both verbal ability and inductive reasoning skills.

“Perhaps the largest difference between our Cohorts 2 and 6 is the dramatic increase in educational attainment, which is accompanied by marked cohort differences at comparable ages for both verbal ability and inductive reasoning skills.”

May combine two claims.

There have been dramatic changes in the level of occupational pursuits, associated with structural changes in the labor market, but also requiring acquisition of educational skills commonly associated with upward socioeconomic mobility.

“We also noted dramatic changes in the level of occupational pursuits, associated with structural changes in the labor market, but also requiring acquisition of educational skills commonly associated with upward socioeconomic mobility.”

May combine two claims.

Cohort differences in intelligence were even more dramatic for cohorts born prior to those studied by Flynn, but they have diminished in subsequent cohorts.

“We pointed out, however, that cohort differences in intelligence were even more dramatic for cohorts born prior to those studied by Flynn, but they have diminished in subsequent cohorts.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Another major change for the latter cohort is the increase of women in the workforce, accompanied by an increase in their educational levels (now similar to their male peers).

“Another major change for the latter cohort is the increase of women in the workforce, accompanied by an increase in their educational levels (now similar to their male peers).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

These transitions are usually defined by a circumscribed relatively brief time period during which they occur.

“Also, these transitions are usually defined by a circumscribed relatively brief time period during which they occur.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Two types of life transitions have been distinguished in the psychological and sociological literatures: normative and nonnormative.

“Two types of transitions have been distinguished in the psychological and sociological literatures (Baltes, 1979; Riley et al., 1972): normative (school entry, puberty, work entry, marriage, child bearing, and retirement) and nonnormative (death or severe illness, divorce, and winning the lottery).”

• cites Baltes, 1979Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Riley et al., 1972Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Cohort effects estimated by comparing successive cohorts over common age ranges are confounded with period effects, but if a series of cohort differences are computed across the same time period, each estimate will be equally affected.

“The cohort effects estimated in this manner will, of course, be confounded with period effects, but if a series of cohort differences are computed across the same time period, each estimate will be equally affected.”

May combine two claims.

The data reported by Flynn and others are insufficient to determine whether massive IQ gains are unique to a specific historical period and the post-World War II cohort or indicate long-term societal or evolutionary change, because the range of cohorts examined is limited.

“The data reported by Flynn and others are insufficient to address this question given the limited range of cohorts examined.”

• cites Flynn, 1987 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Sampling with replacement may be problematic if the population frame changes over time.

“On the other hand, sampling with replacement may be problematic if the population frame changes over time.”

May combine two claims.

Intergenerational differences in schooling peaked among men born shortly after World War I and decelerated across more recent cohorts.

“Hauser and Featherman (1976) noted that intergenerational differences in schooling peaked among men born shortly after World War I and that a deceleration has occurred across more recent cohorts.”

• cites Hauser and Featherman (1976) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The negative cohort effects on verbal ability reported by Alwin may be due to confusing cohort effects with aging, treating the relationship between age and verbal ability as linear rather than curvilinear.

“The negative cohort effects on verbal ability reported by Alwin (1991) may be due to confusing cohort effects with aging, treating the relationship between age and verbal ability as linear rather than curvilinear (Wilson & Gove, 1999).”

• cites Alwin (1991) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Wilson & Gove, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The impact of historical or sociocultural life-course events on individual development has been an important focus of work by social psychologists such as Elder, Stewart, and Helson and Moane.

“The impact of such historical or sociocultural life-course events on individual development has been an important focus of the work of social psychologists such as Elder (1974), Stewart (2003), and, to some extent, Helson and Moane (1987).”

• cites Elder (1974)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Stewart (2003) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Helson and Moane (1987) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Performance on psychometric markers of fluid ability can be improved through educational procedures, although their basic information-processing components might not be affected.

“Hence, performance on psychometric markers of fluid ability can be improved through educational procedures, although their basic information-processing components might not be affected.”

May combine two claims.

Fluid abilities as measured by psychometric tests, as well as crystallized abilities, are significantly impacted by environmental influences.

“there is a large body of literature indicating that fluid abilities (as measured by psychometric tests) as well as crystallized abilities are significantly impacted by environmental influences.”

May combine two claims.

The lack of comparable chronological ages across cohorts is a critical issue in evaluating cohort differences and has been seriously abused in prior studies.

“The issue of the lack of comparable chronological ages across cohorts is, in particular, a critical one in evaluating cohort differences and a criterion that has been seriously abused in prior studies.”

May combine two claims.

The same test items may not mark the construct equally well in all cohorts because content becomes obsolete.

“That is, the same test items may not mark the construct equally well in all cohorts; content becomes obsolete.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Significant others in an individual's life change across the life course, progressing from parents to spouses and extended family, friends, and colleagues.

“As Kahn and Antonucci’s (1980) model of convoys of social support suggest, the significant others in the individual’s life would be expected to change across the life course, progressing from parents to spouses and extended family, friends, and colleagues.”

• cites Kahn and Antonucci’s (1980)Not checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Each of the four criteria proposed in the literature for evaluating IQ gain data is problematic.

“As research in the SLS and other cohort-sequential studies have shown, each of these criteria is problematic.”

May combine two claims.

Direct comparison of different cohorts at one point in time confounds cohort with age effects, whereas comparison of cohorts at the same age but different points in time confounds cohort and period effects.

“That is, the direct comparison of different cohorts at one point in time confounds cohort with age effects, whereas comparison of cohorts at the same age but different points in time confound cohort and period effects (cf. Ryder, 1965; Schaie, 1965; Wilson & Gove, 1999).”

• cites Ryder, 1965 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Schaie, 1965 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Wilson & Gove, 1999 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

These life transitions are usually specific to a particular life domain, although there may be spillover to other domains.

“These transitions are usually specific to a particular life domain (e.g., marriage or work) although there may be spillover to other domains.”

May combine two claims.

The recent debate on cohort differences in intelligence has been too narrow because it examined a limited range of birth cohorts and often studied cohort differences nondevelopmentally at only a single chronological age.

“We then use Seattle Longitudinal Study (SLS) data to illustrate how the recent debate has been too narrow due to the limited range of birth cohorts examined and because cohort differences are often studied nondevelopmentally by considering only a single chronological age.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The difficulty level of specific test items may shift markedly across cohorts and time.

“Also, the difficulty level of specific test items may shift markedly across cohorts and time.”

May combine two claims.

The data used to compare trajectories of different cohorts come from successive independent random samples of each of the three cohorts and are unbiased with respect to attrition and/or retest effects.

“The appropriate data to be used for comparison of the trajectories of different cohort come from successive independent random samples of each of the three cohorts. These data are thus unbiased with respect to attrition and/or retest effects.”

May combine two claims.

Given the seven waves of the SLS, cohort differences for cohorts entering early can be compared at as many as six different ages, whereas the most recently entered cohort can be compared only at the one age at which it was measured.

“Given the seven waves of the SLS, this means that cohort differences for those cohorts entering the study at an early stage can be compared at as many as six different ages, whereas the most recently entered cohort can be compared only at the one age at which it was measured.”

May combine two claims.

The average length of the school year for Cohort 2 was 140 days compared with 170 days and 180 days for Cohorts 6 and 10, respectively.

“The average length of the school year for Cohort 2 was 140 days compared with 170 days and 180 days for Cohorts 6 and 10, respectively.”

• cites U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2002Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

State legislation on the length of the school year and compulsory school attendance passed during the same period impacted not only the proportion of children in school but the intensity of the educational experience.

“State legislation on the length of the school year and compulsory school attendance passed during the same period impacted not only the proportion of children in school but the intensity of the educational experience.”

• cites U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2002Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The declining influence of social background reflects changes both in the variance of the social background characteristics and in their effects on schooling.

“The declining influence of social background reflects changes both in the variance of the social background characteristics and in their effects on schooling.”

May combine two claims.

Both father's education and occupation status have increased across cohorts, whereas the number of siblings has decreased.

“Both father’s education and occupation status have increased across cohorts, whereas the number of siblings has decreased.”

• cites Hauser & Featherman, 1976 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Changes in the characteristics of populations will, in turn, change the social structures that have produced these changes; hence, we experience an interactive process that requires continuous monitoring and study.

“A final caution: As Riley (1972) taught us, changes in the characteristics of populations will, in turn, change the social structures that have produced these changes; hence, we experience an interactive process that requires continuous monitoring and study.”

• cites Riley (1972)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Sampson and Laub (1996) reported that GI Bill training as well as in-service schooling enhanced subsequent occupational status, job stability, and economic well being, independent of childhood differences and socioeconomic background.

“Sampson and Laub (1996) reported that GI Bill training as well as in-service schooling enhanced subsequent occupational status, job stability, and economic well being, independent of childhood differences and socioeconomic background.”

• cites Sampson and Laub (1996) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

82% of those veterans who had attended college before the war made use of GI benefits to continue their education.

“Almost 50% of all veterans of World War II and the Korean War used the benefits for education and training, and 82% of those veterans who had attended college before the war made use of GI benefits to continue their education.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A number of studies have examined key social background variables associated with final educational attainment.

“There have been a number of studies examining key social background variables associated with final educational attainment (cf. Alwin & Thornton, 1984).”

• cites Alwin & Thornton, 1984 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The SLS's Cohort 6 would have been particularly affected by the GI Bill associated with World War II.

“The SLS’s Cohort 6 would have been particularly affected by the GI Bill associated with World War II.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Despite the restriction to U.S. contexts, the data, because of their extensive comparative and longitudinal findings within one study, have far-reaching implications for interpretations of the so-called Flynn effect.

“However, despite this restriction, the data, because of their extensive comparative and longitudinal findings within one study, have far-reaching implications for interpretations of the so-called Flynn effect.”

May combine two claims.

On average a farm background cost men 1 full year of schooling, and Southern birth cost .4 to .8 years of schooling.

“On average a farm background cost men 1 full year of schooling, and Southern birth cost .4 to .8 years of schooling.”

• cites Hauser & Featherman, 1976 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The variables of being raised on a farm and being born in the South also had a substantial effect.

“The variables of being raised on a farm and being born in the South also had a substantial effect.”

• cites Hauser & Featherman, 1976 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Approximately 33% of veterans whose college work was interrupted by military service finished college or went on to graduate or professional school.

“Approximately 33% of veterans whose college work was interrupted by military service finished college or went on to graduate or professional school.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Among the social background variables studied were father's education, father's occupation, number of siblings, broken family, farm background, and Southern birth-many of these variables clearly pertain to the environment of the father as well as the subject of interest.

“Among the social background variables studied were father’s education, father’s occupation, number of siblings, broken family, farm background, and Southern birth—many of these variables clearly pertain to the environment of the father as well as the subject of interest.”

• cites Hauser & Featherman, 1976 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Almost 50% of all veterans of World War II and the Korean War used the benefits for education and training.

“Almost 50% of all veterans of World War II and the Korean War used the benefits for education and training, and 82% of those veterans who had attended college before the war made use of GI benefits to continue their education.”

May combine two claims.

Cohort 6 could represent the children of Cohort 2; likewise, Cohort 10 could represent children of Cohort 6.

“Thus, Cohort 6 could represent the children of Cohort 2; likewise, Cohort 10 could represent children of Cohort 6.”

May combine two claims.

A marked shift in educational philosophy between Cohort 2 and Cohort 6 was the Progressive movement in education, which peaked in the 1920s and whose most noted proponent was John Dewey.

“A marked shift in educational philosophy between Cohort 2 and Cohort 6 was the Progressive movement in education, which peaked in the 1920s and whose most noted proponent was John Dewey (Emirbayer, 1992).”

• cites Emirbayer, 1992 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Given the existing psychometric ability measures, it is unlikely that fluid abilities would provide stronger tests of cohort effects than those provided by crystallized measures.

“First, given the existing psychometric ability measures, it is unlikely that fluid abilities would provide stronger tests of cohort effects than those provided by crystallized measures.”

May combine two claims.

The benefits of the GI Bill were larger for younger veterans and for those who had some evidence of delinquency in military service records.

“The benefits of the GI Bill were larger for younger veterans and for those who had some evidence of delinquency in military service records.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Due to the increased number of pupils resulting from child labor laws and compulsory school attendance, the educational practices of standardized testing and tracking of students was introduced.

“On the one hand, due to the increased number of pupils resulting from child labor laws and compulsory school attendance, the educational practices of standardized testing and tracking of students was introduced.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A number of these social background variables pertain to the parent's characteristics and thus would be considered in our framework in ExoSystem models.

“Of relevance for this article is the fact that a number of these social background variables pertain to the parent’s characteristics and thus would be considered in our framework in ExoSystem models.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Parents' work environment impacts child-rearing practices.

“In the child literature, the parents’ work environment has been shown to impact child-rearing practices (Kohn & Schooler, 1983), occupational aspirations of adolescents (Mortimer & Kumka, 1982), and curricular activities (Morgan, Alwin, & Griffin, 1979).”

• cites Kohn & Schooler, 1983Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

A major provision of the National Defense Education Act involving a $15 million grant was the provision of funds to identify talented students and encourage them to pursue higher education.

“A major provision of the law involving a $15 million grant was the provision of funds to identify talented students and encourage them to pursue higher education.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Advances in cognitive science would suggest that a test of cohort differences in fluid abilities should be conducted using measures of more basic levels of information processing.

“Advances in cognitive science would suggest, in any event, that a test of cohort differences in fluid abilities should be conducted using measures of more basic levels of information processing.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The SLS analysis focus is specific to historical contexts affecting the United States.

“Its focus is specific to historical contexts affecting the United States.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The analysis of cohort effects in the SLS is restricted in the scope of cross-national comparisons.

“The analysis of cohort effects in the SLS, although rich in within-nation longitudinal and cohort-comparative sampling, is, of course, restricted in the scope of cross-national comparisons.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In the 1957-1958 term alone, Congress proposed over 80 laws to establish programs that would seek out bright students and provide them with financial support for schooling.

“In the 1957–1958 term alone, congress proposed over 80 laws to establish programs that would seek out bright students and provide them with financial support for schooling.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Changes in rates of aging in intellectual performance have serious societal consequences for the nature of the workforce, the stability of pension systems, and the nature of the health care system required to serve a growing elderly population that differs markedly from earlier cohorts.

“Yet, changes in rates of aging in intellectual performance have serious societal consequences for the nature of the workforce, the stability of pension systems, and the nature of the health care system required to serve a growing elderly population that differs markedly from earlier cohorts.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The national panic generated by Sputnik resulted in Congress passing a federal-aid-to-education bill, known as The National Defense Education Act of 1958.

“The national panic generated by this event resulted in Congress passing a federal-aid-to-education bill, known as The National Defense Education Act of 1958.”

May combine two claims.

Cohort differences in intellectual abilities are shaped largely by changes in educational attainment and educational process and by changes in the labor market that are shaped by sociopolitical developments.

“Our analysis of the historical influences on education suggests that cohort differences in intellectual abilities are shaped largely by changes in educational attainment and educational process and by changes in the labor market that are shaped by sociopolitical developments.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

One of the most prominent examples of targeted federal funding are the postwar rehabilitation programs for veterans, known as the GI Bills.

“One of the most prominent examples are the postwar rehabilitation programs for veterans, known as the GI Bills (Nam, 1964; Sampson & Laub, 1996).”

• cites Nam, 1964 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sampson & Laub, 1996 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The Progressive movement also involved the introduction of the kindergarten, manual and vocational education, and evening classes for adults.

“The Progressive movement also involved the introduction of the kindergarten, manual and vocational education, and evening classes for adults.”

May combine two claims.

Primarily as a consequence of the secular rise in educational attainment, successive cohorts of young persons have distributions of social background variables that are gradually becoming more favorable to high levels of schools, as evidenced by increases in parent's educational and their occupational levels.

“In addition, primarily as a consequence of the secular rise in educational attainment, successive cohorts of young persons have distributions of social background variables that are gradually becoming more favorable to high levels of schools, as evidenced by increases in parent’s educational and their occupational levels.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

These background variables account for 30% to 37% of the variance in educational attainment of males of various cohorts.

“These background variables account for 30% to 37% of the variance in educational attainment of males of various cohorts.”

• cites Hauser & Featherman, 1976 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The three illustrative SLS cohorts (Cohorts 2, 6, and 10) represent three successive generations, separated by approximately 30 years.

“First, we note that the three illustrative SLS cohorts (Cohorts 2, 6, and 10) discussed herein represent three successive generations, separated by approximately 30 years.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In 1956, 25% of all male college students were veterans of the Korean War.

“Similarly, in 1956 25% of all male college students were veterans of the Korean War (Nam, 1964).”

• cites Nam, 1964 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Parents' work environment impacts occupational aspirations of adolescents.

“In the child literature, the parents’ work environment has been shown to impact child-rearing practices (Kohn & Schooler, 1983), occupational aspirations of adolescents (Mortimer & Kumka, 1982), and curricular activities (Morgan, Alwin, & Griffin, 1979).”

• cites Mortimer & Kumka, 1982 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Further educational training was provided through GI Bills for veterans of World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War.

“Further educational training was provided through GI Bills for veterans of World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War.”

May combine two claims.

For veterans who had just completed high school or had barely started college, 20% went on to get a college degree and a larger proportion took at least some college courses.

“For veterans who had just completed high school or had barely started college, 20% went on to get a college degree and a larger proportion took at least some college courses.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The mean level of fathers' education had increased from about 7 years to almost 11 years.

“The mean level of fathers’ education had increased from about 7 years to almost 11 years.”

• cites Hauser & Featherman, 1976 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Each of the following variables accounted for about 25% of a year gain in level of educational attainment: 1 year of father's schooling, 10 points of father's occupation status, and additional sibling.

“Each of the following variables accounted for about 25% of a year gain in level of educational attainment: 1 year of father’s schooling, 10 points of father’s occupation status, and additional sibling.”

• cites Hauser & Featherman, 1976 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In 1957 the Soviet Union launched Sputnik.

“In 1957 the Soviet Union launched Sputnik.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Standardized testing was viewed as a more scientific way to determine children's likely occupational attainment and to allocate them into different educational channels.

“Standardized testing was viewed as a more scientific way to determine children’s likely occupational attainment and to allocate them into different educational channels (Ackerman, 1995).”

• cites Ackerman, 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Hauser and Featherman (1976) utilized data from the OCG surveys to examine key social background variables associated with educational attainment of male birth cohorts from 1897 to 1951.

“Hauser and Featherman (1976) utilized data from the OCG surveys (Blau & Duncan, 1967) to examine key social background variables associated with educational attainment of male birth cohorts from 1897 to 1951.”

• cites Hauser & Featherman, 1976 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Blau & Duncan, 1967Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The discussion of the effect of the GI Bill on educational attainment of Cohort 6 could be construed as an ExoSystem environment for Cohort 10.

“For example, the discussion of the effect of the GI Bill on educational attainment of Cohort 6 could be construed as an ExoSystem environment for Cohort 10.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The notion that one should measure cohort differences in mature persons implies that ages of peak performance remain constant across cohorts (not true) or, when samples ranging widely in age are utilized, assumes that there are no adult age changes.

“Second, the notion that one should measure cohort differences in mature persons implies that ages of peak performance remain constant across cohorts (not true) or, when samples ranging widely in age are utilized, assumes that there are no adult age changes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Parents' work environment impacts curricular activities.

“In the child literature, the parents’ work environment has been shown to impact child-rearing practices (Kohn & Schooler, 1983), occupational aspirations of adolescents (Mortimer & Kumka, 1982), and curricular activities (Morgan, Alwin, & Griffin, 1979).”

• cites Morgan, Alwin, & Griffin, 1979 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The goal of the Progressive movement was development of a demographic character equipped for responsible citizenship.

“The goal of the movement was development of a demographic character equipped for responsible citizenship.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The ChronoSystem environments discussed for a given cohort could be considered as the ExoSystem environment for a preceding cohort.

“Thus, the ChronoSystem environments that we have discussed for a given cohort could be considered as the ExoSystem environment for a preceding cohort.”

May combine two claims.

Daily attendance was approximately 65% for Cohort 2 compared with 85% and 90% for Cohorts 6 and 10, respectively.

“Daily attendance was approximately 65% for Cohort 2 compared with 85% and 90% for Cohorts 6 and 10, respectively (U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2002).”

• cites U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2002Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Progressive movement also advocated movement away from teacher-directed lecture and rote recitation to increased student-teacher interaction, group exercises, and critical reflection.

“On the other hand, the Progressive movement also advocated movement away from teacher-directed lecture and rote recitation to increased student–teacher interaction, group exercises, and critical reflection.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Father's educational or occupational status experienced as a young adult and occurring in a particular historical period influences subsequent intellectual functioning of offspring.

“For example, the father’s educational or occupational status experienced as a young adult and occurring in a particular historical period have been studied as influences on subsequent intellectual functioning of the offspring (Hauser & Featherman, 1976).”

• cites Hauser & Featherman, 1976 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Father's education was relatively more important than any other background variable in all groups examined.

“Father’s education was relatively more important than any other background variable in all groups examined.”

• cites Hauser & Featherman, 1976 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Progressive movement advocated what today seem to be contradictory initiatives.

“The Progressive movement advocated what today seem to be contradictory initiatives (Emirbayer, 1992).”

• cites Emirbayer, 1992 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source