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The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition
Abstract
Advancing adult age is associated with reduced processing speed, which constrains cognitive performance.
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“even healthy older adults experience age-related declines across multiple facets of cognition (Park & Shaw, 1992; Park et al., 1996; Salthouse, 1996; Salthouse & Babcock, 1991)”
From Training Older Adults to Use Tablet Computers: Does It Enhance Cognitive Function? (2016) · cites this paper as Salthouse, 1996
In the citing paper
“age-related changes in speed of information processing will constrain performance in timelimited decisions”
From Enrichment Effects on Adult Cognitive Development: Can the Functional Capacity of Older Adults Be Preserved and Enhanced? (2008) · cites this paper as Salthouse, 1996
In the citing paper
“Differential susceptibility to coordinative demands may also help to explain why life-span age differences in marker tests of fluid intelligence such as Raven's matrices tend to persist when participants are given unlimited amounts of time to solve the items”
From Enrichment Effects on Adult Cognitive Development: Can the Functional Capacity of Older Adults Be Preserved and Enhanced? (2008) · cites this paper as Salthouse, 1996
In the citing paper
“It follows a U-shaped trajectory over the lifespan, with differences in processing speed between younger and older adults being among the most widely replicated effects in the domain of cognitive aging (Salthouse 1996).”
From Hearing Impairment and Cognitive Energy: The Framework for Understanding Effortful Listening (FUEL) (2016) · cites this paper as Salthouse 1996
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“Much of the existing knowledge regarding PS has been based on the work of Salthouse (1996).”
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“…development of processing speed and development of WM capacity and large attenuation of the agerelated influences on cognitive measures after statistical control for measures of processing speed (Cerella & Hale, 1994; Fry & Hale, 1996; Kail & Park, 1994; Kail & Salthouse, 1994; Salthouse, 1996).”
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“Salthouse (1990, 1991, 1996) showed that when measures of speed and working memory were used as mediators, age-related variance in performance was substantially reduced on many cognitive tasks.”
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Effects of processing speed training on cognitive functions and neural systems
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“This was done to counteract possible age-related challenges including cognitive slowing (Salthouse, 1996), limited processing resources (Craik, 1986; Craik & Jennings, 1992), lack of inhibition (Hasher & Zacks, 1988; Zacks & Hasher, 1994), and sensory deficits (Baltes & Lindenberger, 1997; Fozard,…”
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“The paper-andpencil tasks we used as markers of perceptual speed are widely used in cognitive aging research (Hoyer et al., 2004; Verhaeghen and Salthouse, 1997) and have been instrumental in studies of the influential processing-speed hypothesis of cognitive aging (Salthouse, 1996).”
Rose, S. A., Feldman, J. F., Jankowski, J. J., & Rossem, R. V. (2011) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2011.03.003 · Cited by 66
“Although processing speed is often considered key to many other types of cognitive functions (Kail, 1991; Kail & Salthouse, 1994; Rose, Feldman, & Jankowski, 2003; Salthouse, 1996), it has rarely been studied in preterms.”
BackgroundThe role of working memory abilities in lecture note-taking
Bui, D. C., & Myerson, J. (2014) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2014.05.002 · Cited by 68
“Salthouse (1996) also postulated a simultaneity mechanism that captures the interaction between processing speed and forgetting rate: The longer it takes one to perform task, the longer one has to remember the information required by that task.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialEvaluation of an objective technique for analysing temporal variables in DAT spontaneous speech
Singh, S., Bucks, R. S., & Cuerden, J. M. (2001) · Aphasiology · doi:10.1080/02687040143000041 · Cited by 67
“Changes to either of these may arise through word-finding deficits, a marked feature of DAT (Bucks et al., 2000), through generalised cognitive slowing (Salthouse, 1993, 1996), or from impairment to cognitive processes that govern planning of sentences.”
BackgroundWhite Matter Abnormalities and Cognition in a Community Sample
Vannorsdall, T. D., Waldstein, S. R., Kraut, M. A., Pearlson, G. D., & Schretlen, D. J. (2009) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acp037 · Cited by 66
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“Ample research has provided evidence for this prototypical pattern of adult cognitive development (e.g., Salthouse, 1996; Schaie, 2005).”
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Pichora-Fuller, M. K., Alain, C., & Schneider, B. A. (2017) · Springer handbook of auditory research · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-51662-2_9 · Cited by 79
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“…brings special challenges for speech comprehension due to age-related hearing loss (ARHL) (Fitzgibbons and Gordon-Salant, 2010), which is associated with declines in episodic memory (Wingfield and Kahana, 2002), processing speed (Salthouse, 1996), and working memory resources (Salthouse, 1994).”
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“Based on cognitive theories of normal aging involving the foundational changes in processing speed [8], we hypothesized the latency variables of interest would be primarily associated with processing speed metrics.”
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Task-Specific and General Cognitive Effects in Chiari Malformation Type I
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“It is assumed that representations inworking memory decay quickly and that fast processing therefore helps to complete a task before necessary information is lost (Jensen, 1998; Salthouse, 1996).”
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“Thus, speed measures may be very sensitive to a wide array of neuropsychiatric conditions and to cognitive aging in general (Salthouse 1996).”
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“us, it is not surprising that any diseases or conditions that affect or alter these physiological systems may contribute to the development of dynapenia and sarcopenia, for example, genetic factors, neurodegenerative diseases, hormonal dysregulatory diseases, autoimmune diseases, in�ammation, malnutrition, physical i…”
BackgroundInfluentialThe hormonal pathway to cognitive impairment in older men
Maggio, M. G., Dall’Aglio, E., Lauretani, F., Cattabiani, C., Ceresini, G., Caffarra, P., Valenti, G., Volpi, R., Vignali, A., Schiavi, G., et al. (2012) · The journal of nutrition health & aging · doi:10.1007/s12603-012-0002-7 · Cited by 66
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Intrusions in Episodic Recall: Age Differences in Editing of Overt Responses
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“…challenging due to their physiological limitations such as sensory problems (Fozard, 2001; Baltes, Staudinger, & Lindenberger, 1999); functional impairments (Carpenter & Buday, 2007); cognitive slowing (Salthouse, 1996; Van Gerven, Fred, & Paas, 2000); and lack of inhibition (Zacks & Hasher, 1994).”
BackgroundGrandparent Caregiving, Race, and Cognitive Functioning in a Population-Based Sample of Older Adults
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Determinants of adult age differences on synthetic work performance.
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Self-citationAge-related differences in executive control of working memory
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“These findings are consistent with Kramer, Hahn, and Gopher (1999) in suggesting that age-related differences in dual-task performance are attributable to the effect of aging on executive control and not to general slowing (Salthouse, 1985, 1996).”
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“(1999) propose a method for correcting RT costs for overall RT in the context of aging studies, where the issue of RT costs being positively correlated with average RT has been discussed frequently (Ratcliff et al., 2000; Salthouse, 1996; Verhaeghen, 2014).”
MethodThe roles of attention, executive function and knowledge in cognitive ageing of working memory
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“Processing speed is a competence which has an impact on numerous cognitive tasks (Salthouse, 1993, 1996) and seems to decrease in aging (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundThe criterion validity of tasks of basic cognitive processes
Luo, D., Thompson, L. A., & Detterman, D. K. (2005) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2004.12.003 · Cited by 65
“Processing speed has been found to play a dominant mediating role in developmental changes in intelligence (Fry & Hale, 1996; Salthouse, 1996, 2000), whereas working memory seems to outperform processing speed in predicting the within-age individual differences, customarily termed as age-normed…”
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Adult age differences in visual search accuracy: Attentional guidance and target detectability.
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White Matter and Cognitive Decline in Aging: A Focus on Processing Speed and Variability
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“Salthouse (1996b) proposed that reduced processing speed represents a core deficit in aging, which has stimulated a great interest in methods that can maximize the information gained from processing speed tasks (Balota & Yap, 2011).”
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“Joanna L. Hutchison1,2, Hanzhang Lu3 and Bart Rypma1,2 1School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA, 2Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA and 3Advanced Imaging Research Center and Department of Radiology,…”
BackgroundIndividual differences in syntactic processing: Is there evidence for reader-text interactions?
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“Perceptual speed The final construct explored here is perceptual speed, or how quickly one is able to process perceptual stimuli (in the visual domain, within the current study), an ability that falls under the more general construct of processing speed (Salthouse, 1996).”
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Lifespan Theories of Cognitive Development
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The Development of Mental Processing
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Advanced Clinical Interpretation of WISC-IV Index Scores
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Age-specific problems in rhythmic timing.
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Age-Related Declines in Occipital GABA are Associated with Reduced Fluid Processing Ability
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“Notably, performance on pattern comparison tasks declines with age (32).”
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“An elderly person might experience a decline of several cognitive functions, including memory [3, 7], attention [8], executive functions [9, 10], and processing speed [11].”
BackgroundAge-Related Changes in Motor Control During Articulator Visuomotor Tracking
Ballard, K. J., Robin, D. A., Woodworth, G. G., & Zimba, L. D. (2001) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2001/060 · Cited by 64
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“, 2008; Hasher & Zacks, 1988; but compare Murphy, McDowd, & Wilcox, 1999), have been reported, as well as a general reduction in information processing speed for older individuals (Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundPersistent Neurocognitive Problems After Adjuvant Chemotherapy for Breast Cancer
Kreukels, B. P. C., van Dam, F. S. A. M., Ridderinkhof, K. R., Boogerd, W. J., & Schagen, S. B. (2008) · Clinical Breast Cancer · doi:10.3816/cbc.2008.n.006 · Cited by 65
Interplay between memory and executive functions in normal and pathological aging
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“Nonetheless, some studies called into question the relevance of inhibition for the understanding of changes occurring with aging (Borella, Carretti, & Mammarella, 2006; Gamboz, Russo, & Fox, 2002; Salthouse, Siedlecki, & Krueger, 2006), suggesting a more prominent role of other variables, such as the speed of informat…”
BackgroundBiological Markers of Auditory Gap Detection in Young, Middle-Aged, and Older Adults
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“The age-related increase in latency may reflect slowing in the conduction time within the ascending auditory pathways, which would be consistent with the general slowing hypothesis to account for age-related decline in perceptual and cognitive functions [37].”
ResultPerception of Temporal Order: The Effects of Age, Sex, and Cognitive Factors
Ulbrich, P., Churan, J., Fink, M., & Wittmann, M. (2008) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825580802411758 · Cited by 63
“Some authors propose a general slowing of cognitive functions (e.g., Fitzgibbons & Gordon-Salant, 1998; Salthouse, 1996).”
Peng, P., Tao, S., & Li, B. (2013) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2013.01.012 · Cited by 68
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“Therefore, it is logical to conclude that cognitive resources and skills changed by aging (van Rooij and Plomp 1990; Salthouse 1996; Wingfield 1996; Baltes and Lindenberger 1997; Gazzaley et al. 2005; Gordon-Salant 2005) might have caused the reduction of PR observed in this population.”
BackgroundAge of Acquisition, Ageing, and Verb Production: Normative and Experimental Data
Morrison, C. M., Hirsh, K. W., & Duggan, G. B. (2003) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/02724980244000594 · Cited by 64
“There is considerable debate in the literature as to whether the effects of ageing observed in tasks such as these are due to generalized slowing (e.g., Hale & Myerson, 1995; Salthouse, 1996), or to task-specific factors that affect naming tasks (e.”
BackgroundDelayed Anticipatory Spoken Language Processing in Adults with Dyslexia—Evidence from Eye‐tracking
Huettig, F., & Brouwer, S. M. (2015) · Dyslexia · doi:10.1002/dys.1497 · Cited by 75
“Serniclaes et al. (2005) found overall very similar performance of illiterates and literates on /ba/–/da/ contrasts with this task but observed that illiterates had a less precise categorical boundary and a stronger lexical bias.”
BackgroundResultAyasse, N. D., Lash, A., & Wingfield, A. (2017) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2016.00329 · Cited by 61
“…that older adults are on average slower than their younger adult counterparts on a range of perceptual and cognitive tasks (Cerella, 1994; Salthouse, 1996), to include sentence comprehension when measured by decision latencies indicating that a sentence as been understood (e.g.,…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialPrice, D., TYLER, L. K., Henriques, R. N., Campbell, K. L., Williams, N., Treder, M. S., Taylor, J. R., Cam-CAN, Brayne, C., Bullmore, E. T., et al. (2017) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms15671 · Cited by 68
Age differences in diffusion model parameters: a meta-analysis
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“On the one hand, the higher RTs of the older adults might be the result of a general decline in cognitive processing speed due to increased neural noise (Salthouse, 1996).”
First-language decline in healthy aging: implications for attrition in bilingualism
Goral, M. (2003) · Journal of Neurolinguistics · doi:10.1016/s0911-6044(03)00052-6 · Cited by 64
“Another approach proposed that general cognitive slowing was the underlying cause for what may appear as impaired processing ability (Cerella, 1985; Salthouse, 1985b; Salthouse, 1996).”
BackgroundGhisletta, P., & Lindenberger, U. (2005) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2005.07.002 · Cited by 64
The Impact of Education and Heart Attack on Smoking Cessation among Middle- Aged Adults
Wray, L. A., Herzog, A. R., Willis, R. J., & Wallace, R. B. (1998) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.2307/2676339 · Cited by 64
Nejati, V., Salehinejad, M. A., & Sabayee, A. (2018) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-017-0837-2 · Cited by 63
“Salthouse (1996) suggested the “simultaneity mechanism” maintaining that two processes are required for a successful recall: suppressing the information which are already retrieved successfully and continuing search for information that are unrecalled.”
BackgroundRhodes, S., Graham, A. J., Doherty, J. M., Belletier, C., Naveh‐Benjamin, M., Cowan, N., Camos, V., Barrouillet, P., & Logie, R. H. (2019) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0000539 · Cited by 63
“Given the well-known effects of aging on speed of processing (Cerella, 1985; Salthouse, 1996), according to TBRS we may predict a greater prioritization trade-off between storage and processing with age, as processing events take longer to complete.”
Visual Information Processing in Young and Older Adults
Ebaid, D., & Crewther, S. G. (2019) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2019.00116 · Cited by 65
“Indeed, Salthouse’ Processing Speed Theory of Adult Age Differences in Cognition, has become influential across the aging literature in providing an underlying basis for the decline observed in other complex cognitive abilities (i.e., Bashore et al., 1997; Zimprich and Martin, 2002; Salthouse and Ferrer-Caja, 2003; Le…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialVergoossen, L. W. M., Jansen, J. F. A., van Sloten, T. T., et al. (2020) · Radiology · doi:10.1148/radiol.2021202634 · Cited by 63
Visuotactile temporal order judgments in ageing
Poliakoff, E., Shore, D. I., Lowe, C., & Spence, C. J. (2005) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2005.11.034 · Cited by 62
Cognitive Effects of Exogenous Melatonin Administration in Elderly Persons: A Pilot Study
Peck, J. S. (2004) · American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajgp.12.4.432 · Cited by 63
Chronic glucocorticoid hypersecretion in Cushing’s syndrome exacerbates cognitive aging
Michaud, K., Forget, H., & Cohen, H. (2009) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2009.02.013 · Cited by 62
“Cognitive slowing is a prominent feature of aging (for a review, see Salthouse, 1996).”
Gallucci, M., Mazzuco, S., Ongaro, F., Giorgi, E. D., Mecocci, P., Cesari, M., Albani, D., Forloni, G., Durante, E., Gajo, G. B., et al. (2012) · The journal of nutrition health & aging · doi:10.1007/s12603-012-0397-1 · Cited by 62
“Many older people may experience difficulties in various cognitive domains such as memory (36), attention (37), executive functions (38, 39), and processing speed (40) and consequently, a loss of autonomy in activities of daily living (41-43).”
Suzuki, A., & Akiyama, H. (2012) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2012.692761 · Cited by 62
“Speed of processing was measured by the WAIS-R subtest of Digit Symbol and Pattern Matching (Gutchess, Welsh, Boduroglu, & Park, 2006; Salthouse, 1996a).”
InfluentialAlain, C., McDonald, K. L., & Roon, P. V. (2011) · Hearing Research · doi:10.1016/j.heares.2011.10.007 · Cited by 61
“These age-related changes in auditory evoked responses are thought to reflect general slowing (Salthouse, 1996), and impaired inhibitory functions (e.”
BackgroundSentence Processing Strategies in Healthy Seniors with Poor Comprehension: An fMRI Study
Grossman, M., Cooke, A., DeVita, C., Chen, W., Moore, P., Detre, J. A., Alsop, D. C., & Gee, J. C. (2002) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1006/brln.2001.2581 · Cited by 64
Bayles, K. A., & Kim, E. S. (2003) · Journal of Communication Disorders · doi:10.1016/s0021-9924(03)00047-9 · Cited by 63
Marra, C., Gainotti, G., Scaricamazza, E., et al. (2012) · Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1007/s10072-012-0975-3 · Cited by 63
“It has been attributed to the impairment of sensory–perceptual and response processes [20, 23, 24].”
BackgroundLee, T., Mosing, M. A., Henry, J. D., Trollor, J. N., Ames, D. J., Martin, N. G., Wright, M. J., & Sachdev, P. S. (2012) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-012-9526-1 · Cited by 63
“The contrasting results in examining the genetic influences on these two cognitive domains have potential implications for the study of the two preeminent competing theories of cognitive aging: the Processing Speed Theory (Salthouse 1996) and the Frontal-Executive Theory (West 1996).”
BackgroundResultChildhood IQ, smoking, and cognitive change from age 11 to 64 years
Whalley, L. J., Fox, H. C., Deary, I. J., & Starr, J. M. (2004) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2004.04.014 · Cited by 63
Online Information Search Performance and Search Strategies in a Health Problem-Solving Scenario
Sharit, J., Taha, J., Berkowsky, R. W., Profita, H. P., & Czaja, S. J. (2015) · Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making · doi:10.1177/1555343415583747 · Cited by 63
Age Differences in the Subcomponents of Executive Functioning
Maldonado, T., Orr, J. M., Goen, J. R. M., & Bernard, J. A. (2020) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbaa005 · Cited by 71
Bayen, U. J., Phelps, M. P., & Spaniol, J. (2000) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/55.3.p131 · Cited by 62
“Similarly, Schramke and Bauer (1997) found age-independent context effects of physiological states on free recall, and Light, LaVoie, Valencia-Laver, Albertson Owens, and Mead (1992) reported increased repetition priming in both young and older adults with matching versus nonmatching acquisition and test modalities.”
BackgroundResultProcessing Speed and Memory in Aging and Dementia
Sliwinski, M. J., & Herman Buschke, L. (1997) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/52b.6.p308 · Cited by 63
“…as a mediator of adult age differences in memory and other cognitive abilities has been demonstrated repeatedly by Salthouse and his colleagues (Salthouse , 1993b, 1994b, 1996b; Salthouse & Babcock, 1991; Salthouse, Fristoe, & Rhee, 1996) as well as by numerous other investigators (Bryan &…”
BackgroundInfluentialFrom Bedside to Bench: Does Mental and Physical Activity Promote Cognitive Vitality in Late Life?
Studenski, S., Carlson, M. C., Fillit, H., Greenough, W. T., Kramer, A., & Rebok, G. W. (2006) · Science of Aging Knowledge Environment · doi:10.1126/sageke.2006.10.pe21 · Cited by 62
Caring more and knowing more reduces age-related differences in emotion perception.
Stanley, J. T., & Isaacowitz, D. M. (2015) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/pag0000028 · Cited by 66
“Because increasing age is associated with fewer cognitive resources (Park, 2000; Salthouse, 1996), older individuals are more selective in how they expend these limited resources than younger individuals (Baltes & Baltes, 1990).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Salthouse, T. A.
- Affiliations
- Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
- Corresponding author
- Salthouse, Timothy A.
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1996
- Volume
- 103
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 403-428
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2039752037
- Semantic Scholar
- 8ed819fe682efc79801d73e6343885be23d36fb8
- Cited by
- 5,902
- References
- 113
- Citations by year
- 2026: 269 · 2025: 251 · 2024: 232 · 2023: 214 · 2022: 217 · 2021: 273 · 2020: 240 · 2019: 296 · 2018: 280 · 2017: 273 · 2016: 284 · 2015: 309 · 2014: 267 · 2013: 266 · 2012: 283
- FWCI
- 81.40
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R37AG006826)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- processing speed, age differences in cognition, fluid intelligence, cognitive aging
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Attention, Cognition, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Reaction Time
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